The Africa Habitat Review Journal seeks to advance knowledge and promote the exchange of ideas among stakeholders in the built environment. The journal provides a platform for disseminating scholarly research, innovative practices, and emerging technologies that inform policy, planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. By fostering dialogue between researchers, practitioners, and policymakers, the journal supports research and development aimed at improving the efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability of professional practice across Africa and beyond.
FBED Publications, University of Nairobi, 2025
Structural Failures and Development Control in Kenya:
Shelter is a fundamental human need, yet in many rapidly urbanising African cities, the pursuit of affordable housing has increasingly produced unsafe buildings and recurrent structural failures. In Kenya, frequent building collapses over recent decades have resulted in loss of life, injuries, displacement, and substantial economic losses. This paper examines the relationship between structural failures and development control in Kenya using a qualitative, desk-based analytical approach grounded in documentary and comparative review. It situates the Kenyan experience within broader global and regional urbanisation dynamics, reviews the contemporary statutory and institutional framework governing development control, and synthesises empirical and documentary evidence on the causes of building collapse. Drawing on comparative literature from Kenya, Nigeria, and wider urban studies, the paper identifies key drivers of failure, including weak regulatory enforcement, engagement of unqualified practitioners, rent-seeking and corruption, technical design and construction deficiencies, poor maintenance, and inadequate regulatory review. The analysis develops a conceptual framework that links regulatory architecture, institutional capacity, professional ethics, and developer behaviour to building performance outcomes. It advances policy-oriented recommendations to improve safety, accountability, and resilience in Kenya’s construction sector.
Building safety, structural failure, building collapse, development control, regulatory enforcement, construction governance, professional ethics, institutional capacity, urbanisation, Kenya
Copyright (c) 2025 AFRICA HABITAT REVIEW
Industry 4.0 and Construction Project Labour Productivity (CPLP) in Kenya:
The persistent stagnation of labour productivity in the construction sector poses a critical challenge to economic growth in developing countries, including Kenya. The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has been widely promoted as a transformative solution capable of reversing this trend through digitalisation, automation, and data-driven decision-making. This study critically evaluates whether the adoption of 4IR technologies constitutes a viable pathway (panacea) to improving Construction Project Labour Productivity (CPLP) or whether it introduces implementation risks (sinking sand) that undermine expected gains. Anchored in post-positivist and pragmatic research paradigms, the study draws on previously developed CPLP predictive models based on empirical project data from Nairobi. The models demonstrate that Project Information Flow (PIF) and Project Materials Flow (PMF) jointly explain 88.0% of the variations in CPLP. A reflexive qualitative analysis is then employed to interrogate the practical feasibility of translating these theoretical gains into on-site productivity improvements. Findings indicate that while 4IR technologies can significantly enhance PIF and PMF, their effectiveness depends on human capacity, infrastructure readiness, and change management. Without these enabling conditions, technology adoption risks becoming counterproductive. The study concludes by proposing a strategic implementation framework to convert 4IR potential into measurable productivity outcomes.
Construction project labour productivity, industry 4.0, project information flow, project materials flow, Kenya, predictive modelling, digital transformation, developing countries
In Nairobi’s informal settlements, land tenure insecurity perpetuates poverty, eviction risks, and limited service access. This study examines Baba Dogo in Ruaraka Sub-County, where undocumented claims, bureaucracy, and socio-economic vulnerabilities hinder investments. Amid rapid Sub-Saharan urbanization, community-based organizations (CBOs) mobilize financial and social capital—through savings groups, microfinance, cooperatives, and trust networks—to secure land rights. Using mixed methods (78-household survey, key informant interviews, focus groups, and secondary data), findings show 80.8% ownership claims, though 69.2% lack documentation and 98.7% perceive insecurity. CBOs improved credit access by 40% via SACCOs, secured long-term possession for 20% through Community Land Trusts, and formalized 35% of leases through Akiba Mashinani Trust. These actions averted evictions for 50% of participants and improved 45% of housing and service conditions. While limited by a small sample and single-site focus, the study advances understanding of community-led tenure strategies and supports policies integrating CBO participation and hybrid tenure models.
Land tenure insecurity, informal settlements Nairobi, community-based organizations, capital mobilization, grassroots empowerment, sustainable urban development, eviction prevention, ownership formalization, urban equity
Copyright (c) 2026 AFRICA HABITAT REVIEW
Understanding Place Dependence in Landscape Settings:
This review synthesizes place dependence (PD) as a functional component of place attachment (PA) and sense of place (SOP) within landscape settings. Using a content-analysis approach, we screened titles/abstracts/keywords for “place dependence” across Scopus, Science Direct, and Google Scholar, including cognate terms (place identity, place attachment, sense of place). Fifty-four (54) studies published between 1983 and 2025 met inclusion criteria spanning urban parks, wetlands, traditional streets, coastal corridors, and city-scale public spaces, with very limited African representation. The review finds that place quality (amenities, accessibility, diversity, safety, good upkeep) and place expectation (activities, goals, needs) consistently determine PD, moderated by evaluation, preference, and unwillingness to move. Methods are predominantly quantitative (≈70–72%) using 4–6 Likert-type PD items adapted from Williams & Vaske and related instruments; mixed methods are increasing, while qualitative designs remain under-represented. We propose a conceptual framework linking PD principles relating to place quality/expectation and outcomes (connections, experiences, social interactions) to guide place making and place keeping in landscape planning and governance. Practically, PD can inform programming, amenity mixes, and maintenance standards to improve user satisfaction and stewardship. Gaps include African cases, consistent reporting of PD sub-dimensions, and multi-method triangulation. The review recommends mixed-methods protocols and PD-led evaluation prior to design interventions to link theory, policy and place making practice.
Content analysis, landscape planning, place attachment, place dependence, place identity, place making, sense of place
Predictive Machine Learning Modeling of Urban Traffic Air Pollution:
Air pollution in Africa is a growing yet often overlooked threat, worsened by rapid industrialization, urban expansion, and road traffic. This study examines the impact of traffic flow and meteorological conditions on urban air quality along the Entebbe–Kampala corridor in Uganda. Traffic monitoring and air quality measurements were conducted using AirQo mobile sensors. Motorcycles, saloon cars, and light goods vehicles dominated traffic, while heavy trucks contributed minimally. Pearson correlation, regression, and XGBoost models analyzed pollutant relationships, with SHAP explaining variable contributions. Results showed PM₂.₅ peaks at night due to stable atmospheric conditions limiting dispersion. Regression analysis revealed strong positive relationships between Average Daily Traffic and PM₂.₅, CO₂, and TVOCs (R² = 0.89–0.99). Wind speed explained 45–71% of pollutant variance. The study underscores the need for integrated urban air quality policies focusing on traffic control, speed regulation, and fuel efficiency to mitigate emissions in rapidly urbanizing African cities.
Entebbe-Kampala Road, machine learning, PM2.5, traffic emissions, urban air quality, Uganda
Navigating Urban Sprawl and Green Space Loss:
Urban sprawl poses a significant threat to green spaces in rapidly expanding cities like Nairobi, Kenya, undermining both environmental sustainability and social equity. This paper explores the dynamics of green space degradation, using Kahawa West Community Park as a case study to inform targeted interventions. The study aimed to identify the key factors driving park degradation, assess community usage and perceptions, evaluate the effectiveness of current management strategies, and propose sustainable development strategies. Using a mixed-methods approach, data was gathered through surveys (n=338), interviews with key informants, and field observations. The results revealed severe park decline: 68% of respondents rated cleanliness as poor or very poor, citing waste accumulation and lack of sanitation, while 62% reported significant biodiversity loss due to habitat fragmentation. Infrastructure was also in poor condition, with 70% of respondents identifying inadequate facilities. Despite these challenges, only 25% of residents visited the park regularly, with safety concerns and a lack of recreational amenities cited as major barriers. The study highlights the failure of management, as evidenced by low ratings of coordination and responsiveness, and identifies funding shortages (75%) and encroachment (80%) as significant challenges. Findings emphasize the need for policies that protect urban green spaces, with recommendations focused on collaborative governance, sustainable financing, and targeted interventions to address the consequences of sprawl. This research contributes to the ongoing discourse on sustainable urbanism, offering practical insights for policymakers in Nairobi and other rapidly growing cities.
Urban sprawl, green space degradation, Nairobi, sustainable development, community perceptions, management practices, biodiversity loss, policy reforms, collaborative governance, peri-urban planning
A Planning Framework for Flood Mitigation in Nakuru City, Kenya
Flooding has become an increasingly critical challenge in Nakuru City exacerbated by both natural and human-induced factors. This study aimed to develop a comprehensive planning framework for flood mitigation within Nakuru City by examining the causes and proposing potential solutions to flooding. Observations on flooding roads in Kaptembwa, emerging of fault lines in Eveready and sink holes in Rhonda was captured through photography. Annual rainfall data was acquired from Kenya Meteorological Department with an interval of five years from1985. Sentinel 2 data from Copernicus Data Hub was used in land use analysis and determining the topography of the area while Landsat 8 image was used to examine the extent of Lake Nakuru over years and mapping flood hotspot areas. SPSS was used to analyze both spatial and statistical data for floods. Findings revealed that Nakuru City’s flooding is primarily driven by intense rainfall, topography, poor drainage infrastructure and unregulated urban development. The paper proposes a flood mitigation framework focused on sustainable land-use planning, environmental conservation, stakeholder collaboration, and early warning systems. The study will give guidelines for urban planning practices in areas that were found to be highly susceptible to flooding. Policies can then be crafted through various departments to tackle environmental planning, disaster management and urban resilience. Residence of affected areas can also use this research to plan ahead and mitigate dangers of flooding.
Flooding, urban planning, mitigation framework, geographic information systems and spatial analysis, Nakuru City, resilience, urban flooding and land use change
Assessing Household Vulnerability to Climate Risks in Mukuru Special Planning Area (SPA), Nairobi:
Households in Nairobi’s Mukuru Special Planning Area (SPA) face overlapping vulnerabilities driven by poverty, insecure tenure, and recurrent climate hazards. Guided by the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework and Social-Ecological Systems theory, this mixed-method spatial analysis combined 376 household surveys, six focus group discussions, and GIS mapping. Results show that flood exposure (β = 0.47), improved sanitation (β = −0.21), and income (β = −0.16) were the strongest determinants of household vulnerability, collectively explaining over 90% of its variance. Households relying on informal employment and living in flood-prone zones faced heightened risks, while access to sanitation, secure tenure, and early preparedness substantially reduced exposure. Findings underscore that resilience in Mukuru is infrastructural, social, and institutional, calling for participatory, household-centred planning that links service provision, tenure security, and adaptive capacity-building to equitable climate resilience.
Climate justice; climate risks; household vulnerability; mixed-methods spatial analysis; Mukuru Special Planning Area (SPA); resilience planning; urban climate resilience
Land Use Consolidation as a Tool for Sustainable Rural Development in Kenya:
This study examined land use consolidation as a strategic planning approach to advance sustainable rural development in Kenya, with a specific focus on Tabaka Ward in Kisii County. It highlights how agricultural land fragmentation and conversion—driven by population growth, inheritance customs, and prevailing land tenure systems—have eroded productivity and weakened rural resilience. Adopting a qualitative case study design, the research employed document analysis, field observations, and interviews with community members and key informants. Data were obtained from 27 households and five experts, who were purposively selected for their knowledge and experience. The collected information was analysed using NVivo for thematic coding and ArcGIS for spatial interpretation to identify key patterns and relationships. The findings revealed four major impediments to sustainable rural development: socio-cultural norms, economic disparities, speculative land markets, and weak governance structures. The study concludes that community-led, voluntary, and tenure-responsive land-use consolidation initiatives can significantly improve rural productivity and lay the foundation for inclusive and sustainable land management policies in Kenya.
Human settlement, community involvement, land use consolidation, participatory planning, sustainability, rural development, land-use management, customary land tenure
Spatial-Temporal Impacts of Port Development on City Land Use:
This study examines the spatial-temporal impacts of port development on land use in Mombasa, Kenya, with a focus on the Port Reitz area. Using Landsat 9 imagery (2010–2022), Land-Use and Land-Cover (LULC) analysis, and Pearson correlation tests, the research assessed how port expansion influenced vegetation cover, open spaces, and built-up areas. Results reveal strong negative correlations between port development and vegetation (r = –0.9595) and open spaces (r = –0.9981), indicating significant ecological decline and urban land-use transformation. Qualitative findings from key informants confirmed that uncoordinated port growth has displaced livelihoods and degraded natural environments. The study concludes that port development, while economically beneficial, compromises urban sustainability when detached from spatial planning. It recommends integrated port–city master planning, public participation, and green corridor initiatives to balance development with ecological preservation in line with SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
Port development, land use, sustainable development, land cover, GIS, Mombasa, Kenya
Multicriteria Evaluation of the Quality of Service (QoS) of Informal Public Transport (IPT):
Kenya's Informal Public Transport (IPT) sector faces substantial challenges, including absence of demand-based licensing leading to corridor oversupply and undersupply imbalances, limited coverage, and poor service quality. These deficiencies result in high transportation costs that disproportionately burden low-income households, consuming significant portions of wages and salaries. The financial strain particularly affects captive riders who, lacking alternatives, must bear these costs regardless of economic circumstances. Conversely, choice riders with alternative travel options may select different transport modes when service quality deteriorates or costs escalate. This disparity highlights inequitable access to affordable mobility. This study evaluates Quality of Service (QoS) in urban public transport to enhance productivity, affordability, and passenger satisfaction. Employing a multi-criteria assessment approach, the research analyzes key QoS indicators including affordability, waiting time, travel time, seat comfort, safety, and driver behavior. A questionnaire-based survey of 2,402 public bus passengers in the Nairobi Metropolitan Area examined overall quality of satisfaction levels, relationships with 14 specific service attributes, demographic variables, passenger experience, and gender disparities. Results revealed overall quality of satisfaction at 46.8%. Logistic regression analysis identified road safety and vehicle cleanliness as the most crucial factors for overall satisfaction, followed by service frequency, fare, driving behavior, and security. Gender analysis showed females less satisfied with road safety and punctuality than males. Conductor behavior correlated with overall satisfaction only for females, while service frequency and facility cleanliness correlated only for males. Harassment experiences negatively affected both genders' satisfaction, with particularly pronounced effects for females. Given the relatively high satisfaction levels regarding frequency, coverage, and connectivity, the public bus system possesses positive attributes. In evaluating these advantages of the public bus industry, it is advisable for the entire public transport sector to address the aforementioned issues and enhance satisfaction with crucial service attributes with prioritisation.
Nairobi Metropolitan Area (NMA), Quality of Service (QoS), Customer Satisfaction, Informal Public Transport (IPT), Overall Satisfaction, Nairobi Public Transport Sector, Passenger satisfaction, Logistic regression Analysis
A Machine Learning–Based Computational Framework for Road Performance Assessment in Developing Countries:
Road infrastructure assessment in developing countries remains fragmented. Existing methods focus on isolated dimensions such as pavement condition or geometric design, limiting their utility for comprehensive planning. This study develops the first holistic road quality assessment framework, applying knowledge distillation techniques to Kenya's national road dataset (260,773 segments). Six infrastructure dimensions—surface condition, material type, geometric design, facilities, usage patterns, and functional classification—were integrated into a universal scoring system. The Random Forest teacher model (R² = 0.93; MAE = 0.0051) was successfully distilled into an interpretable polynomial regression formula. Results show that surface condition has the highest influence (37.3%), followed by infrastructure facilities (20.0%), usage patterns (14.6%), and functional classification (11.6%). The framework captures the heterogeneity of Kenya's road network, where 85.1% of roads are unpaved. This work represents the first synthesis of multiple infrastructure criteria into a unified, quantitative formula. The distillation of complex machine learning into an interpretable polynomial equation enables consistent, reproducible road quality scoring. The methodology is transferable—other countries can adapt the six-dimension framework by recalibrating weights to reflect local infrastructure priorities. This provides an evidence-based tool for infrastructure planning, maintenance prioritization, and policy decision-making. Countries with existing road inventory systems can implement this framework by retraining the model on their data to derive context-appropriate dimensional weights.
Road assessment, machine learning, knowledge distillation, infrastructure management, developing countries, road quality, pavement management and pavement condition
Performance of Mortgage-Financed Construction Projects in Kenya:
Mortgage-financed construction projects (MFCPs) in Kenya are widely perceived to underperform, yet empirical evidence specific to mortgage-financed delivery remains scarce. This study evaluates MFCP performance across five indicators, cost, schedule, quality, safety, and cash flow, using a cross-sectional survey of 171 developers drawn from 1,063 mortgages initiated in FY 2021/2022. Results show 67.5% of projects exceed budgets (mean overrun 9.9%) and 65% are behind schedule (mean overrun 9.4%); 59.3% meet quality expectations with a mean rework cost of 6.1%; nearly 18% report serious safety incidents; and cash-flow constraints are moderate on average. These findings substantiate a persistent performance gap in mortgage-backed delivery relative to benchmarks in the wider construction sector. Practically, the study recommends performance-based lender monitoring, targeted products for the “missing middle” (KSh 21–100M), and developer investment in digital cost/schedule control and safety/quality training. Policy-wise, results inform the Affordable Housing Programme by linking financing models to delivery risks. Originality lies in isolating MFCPs as a distinct financing modality and quantifying their KPI profile to guide lenders, regulators, and developers.
Construction project performance; mortgage finance; cost and schedule overruns; quality and safety; cash-flow management; affordable housing; survey research; Kenya
Green Infrastructure for Urban Resilience:
Increasing climate variability challenges urban stormwater management in rapidly growing African cities, with Nairobi exemplifying the crisis: traditional grey infrastructure proves structurally unsound, socially inequitable, and inadequate against frequent floods. This study systematically introduces green infrastructure (GI)—such as permeable surfaces, rain gardens, and bioretention systems—as a resilience-building mechanism. Objectives encompass assessing current stormwater challenges, evaluating GI's hydrological and ecological benefits, analyzing socio-economic and governance barriers to adoption, and identifying mainstreaming strategies in Nairobi's planning. Employing a mixed-methods case study across five sub-areas (Kibera, Mukuru, Langata, Lunga Lunga, Kasarani), the research integrates surveys (N=150 residents; N=26 officials/stakeholders), field observations, GIS mapping, and reviews of policy documents. Quantitative data underwent SPSS analysis via descriptive statistics, ANOVA, and chi-square tests; qualitative insights employed thematic analysis in NVivo; GIS visualized drainage networks, impervious surfaces, and flood hotspots. Findings reveal stark infrastructural inequities: 82-88% of informal settlement residents rate drainage as poor, versus 47% in Kasarani, with ANOVA confirming significant flood frequency disparities (p<0.05). Kibera and Mukuru experience nearly triple Kasarani's annual floods, exacerbated by a 32% impervious surface increase since 2000 (χ²=28.7, p<0.01) and poor maintenance (r=-0.46, p<0.05). Socio-economic tolls include average annual household losses of KES 35,000, business losses of KES 70,000, industrial damages up to KES 250,000, and 38% cholera prevalence in Kibera/Mukuru (χ²=34.5, p<0.01). GI demonstrates hydrological, ecological, and socio-economic advantages, yet requires integration with waste management, preventive maintenance, and community engagement for efficacy. Governance hurdles—fragmented mandates (58%) and inadequate budgets (72%)—persist, but enabling mechanisms like participatory stewardship and innovative financing (e.g., climate funds, green bonds) offer pathways forward. Theoretically and practically, this positions GI not merely as ecological but as a socio-political-economic tool for resilient urban Africa.
Green infrastructure; stormwater management; Nairobi; urban resilience; climate adaptation; socio-economic vulnerability; governance fragmentation; nature-based solutions; informal settlements; urban sustainability
Harnessing Climate Finance for Solid Waste Management in Nairobi:
This paper explores harnessing climate finance, particularly carbon credits, to address Nairobi's solid waste management challenges. The city generates approximately 3,500 tonnes of waste daily, with over 60% organic, yet only 45% is recycled or reused, leading to pollution and health risks from unmanaged dumps. The study examines waste-to-energy, composting, and recycling as means to generate carbon credits for funding sustainable infrastructure. Key projects, such as the proposed 45 MW Nairobi Waste-to-Energy Plant (projected to reduce 1.8 million tonnes of CO₂ over 20 years) and the Circular Economy Composting Project (diverting waste, creating 12,000 jobs, and benefiting 50,000 farmers), demonstrate emission reductions and economic gains. Challenges include insufficient funding (cited by 30% of respondents), regulatory gaps, and institutional fragmentation. Recommendations involve strengthening public-private partnerships, enhancing regulatory frameworks, and integrating carbon finance strategies to promote sustainability, resilience, and alignment with global climate goals.
Climate change resilience, ambient environment, circular economy, green/ climate finance, climate smart solutions, carbon credits, waste management, sustainability, emission reductions
VOLUME 20 ISSUE 3 (DECEMBER, 2025) CONTENT VII Editorial Prof. Robert W. Rukwaro 3448 Harnessing Climate Finance for Solid Waste Management in Nairobi: The Circular Economy, Carbon Credits and Emissions Reduction Approach James Odongo and Silvester Kasuku 3464 Multicriteria Evaluation of the Quality of Service (QoS) of Informal Public Transport (IPT): A Case Study of Ngong Road, Nairobi Metropolitan Area Martin Taani, Yukitsugu Komazawa, Simpson Nyambane Osano, Miracle Wachira and Francis Gitau 3482 Green Infrastructure for Urban Resilience: Integrating Nature-Based Solutions into Stormwater Management in Nairobi Jackline Nyamumbo and Silvester Kasuku 3500 A Machine Learning–Based Computational Framework for Road Performance Assessment in Developing Countries: Evidence from Kenya Amollo Otieno Kenneth, Simpson Nyambane Osano and Tony Ndungu 3512 Performance of Mortgage-Financed Construction Projects in Kenya: Empirical Evidence from Developers Julius Mungai Muigai, Shadrack Mutungi Simon, Gerryshom Munala and James Maina Kiambigi 3534 A Planning Framework for Flood Mitigation in Nakuru City, Kenya Evans Otieno, Mugwima B. Njuguna, Mwangi Kiambigi and John M. Gathenya 3550 Spatial-Temporal Impacts of Port Development on City Land Use: Empirical Evidence from Developers Nashon Njoroge Ngugi, Dennis Karanja and Paul Aloyo 3568 Land Use Consolidation as a Tool for Sustainable Rural Development in Kenya: A Case of Tabaka Ward, Kisii County Daniel Ondu Okumu, Dennis Karanja, Stella Mbiti and Paul Aloyo 3580 Assessing Household Vulnerability to Climate Risks in Mukuru Special Planning Area (Spa), Nairobi: A Case of Tabaka Ward, Kisii County Nyakundi Victor, Munala Gerryshom and Mugwima Njuguna
Editorial Transforming African Cities: Design Technologies, Urban Systems, And Environmental Sustainability Welcome to the Twentieth Volume 3rd Issue of the Africa Habitat Review-Journal of the Faculty of Built Environment and Design. This issue presents critically analysed papers on matters relating to Transforming African Cities: Design Technologies, Urban Systems, and Environmental Sustainability. Harnessing Climate Finance for Solid Waste Management in Nairobi presents a timely interrogation of how African cities can transition from linear, waste-heavy urban metabolisms to circular, regenerative systems through market-based climate mechanisms. As cities like Nairobi struggle with overwhelming waste volumes and insufficient management infrastructure, this paper shows how carbon markets, circular economy models, and emissions-reduction strategies offer viable pathways to sustainable transformation. The study not only quantifies potential emissions reductions but also reframes urban waste as a climate asset capable of attracting global finance. This editorial highlights the paper’s contribution to climate urbanism, policy innovation, and Kenya’s pursuit of green urban resilience. The article titled Multicriteria Evaluation of the Quality of Service (QoS) of Informal Public Transport offers a nuanced and data-rich assessment of Nairobi’s informal transport ecosystem—an essential yet structurally under-serviced mobility network. This editorial highlights the manuscript’s strength in combining gender analysis, satisfaction indices, behavioural attributes, and service-level indicators to expose systemic inequalities and service inefficiencies in the IPT sector. The study’s refined application of multi-criteria evaluation provides strong policy guidance for metropolitan transport reform, particularly as African cities move toward equitable, safe, and demand-responsive mobility systems. Green Infrastructure for Urban Resilience advances an urgently needed rethinking of stormwater management within African urbanism. As climate variability intensifies, the limitations of grey infrastructure become increasingly evident. This paper positions nature-based solutions not merely as ecological amenities but as socio-political tools that address inequality, public health, and disaster risk in Nairobi. The editorial underscores the paper’s layered methodology—combining GIS, hydrology, and governance analysis—to propose an integrated resilience framework applicable to African cities grappling with flooding, informality, and infrastructural neglect. The paper, A Machine Learning–Based Computational Framework for Road Performance Assessment, marks a significant methodological advancement in infrastructure evaluation in developing countries. By distilling a high-performing Random Forest model into an interpretable polynomial equation, the study bridges the gap between computational sophistication and policy usability. This editorial highlights how this research offers a replicable, scalable, and evidence-based model that can transform road maintenance prioritisation and investment planning—particularly in contexts where roads remain a critical determinant of social and economic mobility. In Performance of Mortgage-Financed Construction Projects in Kenya, the authors confront a largely under-researched space: how mortgage financing shapes construction performance outcomes. This editorial highlights the study’s empirical breadth, revealing cost overruns, schedule delays, safety lapses, and quality inefficiencies that widen the performance gap in the affordable housing supply chain. The paper’s implications for financial institutions, developers, and policymakers align strongly with ongoing national housing reforms, providing a grounded reference for risk mitigation in Kenya’s expanding mortgage market. The article, A Planning Framework for Flood Mitigation in Nakuru City, offers a holistic, spatially grounded perspective on one of Kenya’s fastest-growing urban centres. By integrating climatic data, GIS analysis, and on-ground observations, the study proposes a systematic approach to flood resilience centred on land-use planning, environmental conservation, and multi-stakeholder coordination. This editorial acknowledges the paper’s relevance to national disaster-preparedness discourse and its potential to guide policy reforms in secondary cities increasingly vulnerable to climate extremes. Spatial-Temporal Impacts of Port Development on City Land Use offers a critical and timely examination of how port expansion reshapes urban ecologies, economies, and settlement patterns. The paper’s findings—linking vegetation loss and open-space decline to port development—open an important discussion on the sustainability of infrastructural megaprojects in African coastal cities. This editorial highlights its contribution to debates on port–city integration, ecological preservation, and the governance of strategic economic zones. The study Land Use Consolidation as a Tool for Sustainable Rural Development offers an insightful reflection on rural land fragmentation and its implications for productivity, resilience, and socio-economic well-being. By situating Tabaka Ward within broader debates on tenure systems and agricultural sustainability, the paper demonstrates how community-led consolidation efforts can catalyse inclusive rural transformation. This editorial recognises the manuscript’s relevance for national policy reforms in land management, food security, and decentralised planning. The article titled "Assessing Household Vulnerability to Climate Risks in Mukuru SPA" provides a compelling, empirically grounded examination of climate vulnerability in one of Nairobi’s largest informal settlements. The study’s strength lies in combining statistical modelling with spatial analysis and lived experiences, revealing the interconnectedness of poverty, tenure insecurity, infrastructure deficits, and climate exposure. This editorial underscores the paper’s contribution to resilience planning and its alignment with ongoing efforts to develop just, climate-adaptive informal settlement upgrading strategies. The paper Predictive Machine Learning Modelling of Urban Traffic Air Pollution showcases the growing relevance of computational modelling in addressing Africa’s escalating air-quality challenges. By integrating traffic dynamics, meteorological variables, and machine learning, the study offers predictive insights crucial for urban environmental policy. This editorial highlights its applicability to transport planning, emission regulation, and the design of healthier cities. Landscape Dependence and Place Making provides a theoretically rich and methodologically rigorous review of how people form functional attachments to landscapes. By tracing global scholarship and identifying gaps in African scholarship, the paper strengthens the conceptual foundations of place-making, landscape governance, and socio-spatial behaviour. This editorial acknowledges the importance of the review in guiding designers, planners, and researchers toward more context-sensitive approaches to public space, especially in African urbanism. The article Navigating Urban Sprawl and Green Space Loss examines one of the most urgent threats to Nairobi’s environmental sustainability. Through a case study of Kahawa West Community Park, the paper examines the socio-ecological consequences of unmanaged sprawl and the governance gaps that undermine green infrastructure. This editorial underscores how the study’s findings align with global and national sustainability agendas and offer actionable strategies for reversing urban green-space decline. In Empowering Urban Margins, the authors illuminate the ingenuity and resilience of informal settlement communities as they mobilise resources and social capital to secure land rights. This editorial recognises the study’s significance in reframing tenure security not as a top-down administrative process but as a community-driven, participatory, and socially embedded endeavour. The findings contribute innovative insights into urban inclusivity, grassroots financing models, and the future of equitable city-making in Africa. The final article, African Design Technologies for Universal Innovative Business Strategy, positions African cultural heritage as a powerful engine of global innovation. The paper persuasively argues that design philosophies rooted in African traditions can catalyse creativity, sustainability, and competitive business strategy. This editorial highlights the study’s multidimensional analysis—spanning artisanship, entrepreneurship, and consumer psychology—and its contribution to reimagining African design as a globally relevant economic asset.
The Africa Habitat Review Journal strives to impart knowledge and facilitate exchange of ideas among stakeholders in the built environment to keep abreast of new technology, research and development so that they can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of their services. Further, it is intended to enable both academicians and non-academicians in the built environment to publish, lobby and influence policy formulation. The Journal links theory and practice in the built environment within the Kenyan, regional and International context.
Revitalization of Rural Livelihoods Through Land Use Planning in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands:
The sustenance of livelihoods in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) in Kenya is grappled with major challenges, that are brought about up as a result of the impacts of climate change, such as floods, droughts, and unpredictable rainfall patterns. This paper looks into into insights from an empirical investigation into institutional frameworks, resource use, and resilience strategies among households in Ewuaso Oo’nkidongi Ward, Kajiado County. Key livelihood activities in this semi-arid region are centred on agriculture, particularly livestock rearing, complemented by essential services such as healthcare and commerce. Based on data collected during the 2021–2022 second-year Rural Planning Studio, the study employed multiple methods, including interviews, focus group discussions, and 100 household questionnaires. GPS technology was utilised to map vital community assets, including water sources, schools, and health facilities. The findings point out various factors such as extreme temperatures, low rainfall, and inadequate infrastructure that have immensely constrained the livelihoods of local communities. Additional challenges include land fragmentation, climate-related vulnerabilities, and socio-cultural shifts undermining traditional pastoralism. Sparse household distribution further complicates access to critical services, underscoring the need for integrated and immediate interventions.
Revitalisation, land use planning, livelihoods, climate change, resilience
Barriers to the Implementing Lean Design and Construction in Kenya
This study examines the barriers to lean design and construction implementation in Kenya, emphasising the need for an integrated approach that combines leadership commitment, proper training, cultural change, and effective project management. The literature review identifies key barriers, including inadequate management commitment, lack of training in lean principles, absence of a lean culture, unclear roles and responsibilities, insufficient technical knowledge, poorly managed project planning, and external factors such as fluctuations in customer demand. A mixed-method research approach, encompassing both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, is adopted, targeting professionals in the construction industry, including architects, quantity surveyors, engineers, and building contractors of NCA Category 6 and above. Stratified simple random sampling was employed from which a representative sample was selected. Data collection involves a customised questionnaire designed to assess opinions regarding barriers to implementing lean in design and construction processes. The results aim to highlight the challenges faced and provide insights into enhancing productivity and value within the Kenyan construction sector. Five main challenges were identified, namely: poor contract administration, lack of lean culture, leadership disconnect, cost and market barriers, and employees’ inertia.
Barriers, lean design, lean construction, value, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
Assessment of Project Management Maturity in the Construction Industry of Rwanda
Rwanda’s construction industry, a vital economic pillar contributing over 7% to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and projected to expend $546 million in 2025, is central to achieving Vision 2050’s goal of transforming the nation into a middle-income economy by 2050. However, persistent project failures—such as the $30 million cost overrun at the Kigali Convention Centre, the ongoing delay of the Bugesera International Airport since its 2019 target, and the abandonment of the Gisenyi-Gicumbi road project after a $15 million investment—underscore significant challenges linked to low project management (PM) maturity among Grade-1 contractors. Grounded in Systems Theory and Contingency Theory, this study aimed to assess PM maturity to enhance performance, with three key objectives: (1) evaluate the application of PMBOK processes across 14 knowledge areas (Integration, Scope, Time, Cost, Quality, Human Resource, Communication, Risk, Procurement, Stakeholder, Safety, Financial, Environmental, Claim Management), (2) explore stakeholder perspectives on maturity enhancement strategies, and (3) formulate the Project Management Maturity Framework for Rwanda’s Construction Industry (PMMF-RCI). A mixed-methods approach was utilized, comprising a questionnaire completed by 29 Grade-1 contractors (90.6% response rate), analyzed using SPSS for descriptive statistics to quantify maturity levels, and semi-structured interviews with six stakeholders (two contractors, two consultants, two regulators), analyzed thematically with NVivo to capture qualitative insights. Findings revealed stark maturity disparities: Risk Management (48.3% Initial) and Claim Management (37.9% Initial) exhibited predominantly ad hoc practices, while Financial (44.8% Defined) and Safety Management (48.3% Defined) demonstrated structured strengths. Stakeholders identified five critical themes—Capacity Building, Standardization of Processes, Technology Adoption, Stakeholder Collaboration, and Regulatory Support—informing the PMMF-RCI. This framework, structured around four pillars and a three-year implementation roadmap, offers targeted interventions. Recommendations include mandatory PM training, standardized templates, digital tool subsidies, and enhanced regulatory audits to mitigate failures, improve project outcomes, and advance Rwanda’s sustainable development agenda. Policy implications include integrating PMMF-RCI into national regulations to support Vision 2050 and foster broader African infrastructure resilience.
Contingency Theory, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Project Management Maturity Framework for Rwanda’s Construction Industry (PMMF-RCI), Rwanda Public Procurement Authority (RPPA), Systems Theory
This case study integrates design and construction management by applying the Last Planner SystemTM (LPS) and Concurrent Engineering (CE) on a 64-classroom construction project. The study employed an observation technique to collect data. At the same time, the Percentage Plan Complete (PPC) of planned activities was measured against planned day releases or weekly releases of completed portions of work. The project’s PPC was 83%, and some critical activities were completed on time due to the designers applying concurrent engineering concepts. These included reinforcing a suspended slab with a universal beam, reinforced retaining double-walled and floor beams, French drains and adjusting the roof cover to build around a mature fruit tree. The inputs and solutions by the last planners were instrumental in shaping the design and construction of the project in 24 weeks (168 days). The study concludes that there are benefits in applying lean construction tools and that training all project stakeholders on how to use them is essential. The study recommends adopting organisational learning in activity planning to create realistic weekly plans. The importance of last planners is also emphasised to improve the efficiency of site operations. Managing variations by design consultants is critical in reducing delays and improving project quality and cost performance.
Waste, value, lean construction, Last Planner System (LPS), Concurrent Engineering (CE)
Pavement Distress Evaluation along Steep-to-Rolling Highway Sections:
This study evaluates pavement distresses along the 39-km Mau Summit-Timboroa section of Kenya’s A8 highway in steep-to-rolling terrain to enhance infrastructure durability and safety. Objectives include assessing distress types, analysing contributions of traffic loading, speed, material properties, and road gradient to deterioration, and identifying cost-effective pavement designs. Using ASTM D6433 and Kenyan Road Design Manual standards, field surveys, laboratory testing, and layered elastic analysis identified fatigue cracking, rutting, and potholes, yielding a Pavement Condition Index (PCI = 73, Satisfactory). Traffic loading (37.5 million ESALs, 18,581 ESALs/day in 2024), low vehicle speeds (19–23 km/h), weak asphalt concrete (AC, LHS: [τ]₁ = 0.595–0.946 MPa; RHS: [τ]₁ = 0.911–1.561 MPa), dense bituminous macadam (DBM, LHS: [τ]₂ = 0.363–0.665 MPa; RHS: [τ]₂ = 0.511–0.893 MPa), and steep gradients (4.5–9.7%) drive severe left-hand side (LHS) rutting (27.66–38.04 mm) and moderate right-hand side (RHS) rutting (2.17–9.94 mm). High shear stresses (LHS AC: 0.439–0.480 MPa) and temperatures (40°C) exacerbate distress. The stable graded crushed stone (GCS) subbase ([τ]₃ = 0.284–0.55 MPa) contributes minimally. A cost-benefit analysis recommends rigid pavements for high-traffic, steep sections (e.g., Timboroa, 9.7%), polymer-modified asphalt, increased layer thicknesses (AC ≥ 65 mm, DBM ≥ 200 mm), and drainage improvements. Applicable to global highways like Ethiopia’s Rift Valley, these findings optimize maintenance, safety, and durability.
Pavement distress, steep-to-rolling terrain, pavement condition index, traffic loading, cost-benefit analysis, road gradient, flexible pavement, maintenance optimization, asphalt pavement
Reforming the National Affordable Housing Policy to Enhance Acceptance and Participation by Kenyans
Kenya's Affordable Housing Program (AHP) 2022 government flagship program was designed to address national rising shortage of houses via provision of 500,000 affordable units over a four-year period. Despite its ambitious vision, since its launch, the program has been plagued by immense public outcry, primarily attributed to lack of transparency, minimal incorporation of stakeholders, and controversial 1.5% levy on housing. From the perspective of the Stakeholder Theory, this study examines implementation of the policy, arguing that active engagement of all respective stakeholders; namely, persons working in government, persons working in the private sector, and people living on low income, is central to its effectiveness. The study was mixed-methods and included 270 respondents across the three stakeholder constituencies and also conducted analysis of policy documents and public discourse. It found low participation, trust, and perceived affordability, particularly from the target beneficiaries of the program. Only 30% of respondents supported the housing levy while 70% did not trust how money was spent. The stakeholders mentioned lack of communication, perceived exclusion, and cost burden among significant hindrances to participation. The paper finds that stakeholder participation, government openness, and fiscal redesign need to take center stage in policy changes if AHP is to gain legitimacy and momentum. Proposals raised include voluntary contribution schemes, public audits, differential subsidies for housing, and strategic communication campaigns. Comparative observations of cross-country models reiterate the importance of participatory governance and responsive financing systems for the success of affordable housing. Finally, this research calls for a paradigm shift in Kenya's housing policy, away from a top-down national project to a trust-based, participatory national partnership, if it is to be successful in its social mandate and reshape urban living standards.
Affordable housing program of Kenya, stakeholder theory, housing policy reform, public trust, participation, housing levy, transparency, urban development, low-income housing
Evaluation of Strength Performance of Cement Treated Graded Crushed Stones (GCS) for High Traffic Volume Roads Construction in Kenya
This study evaluates the strength performance of cement-treated Graded Crushed Stone (GCS) of 0/30 mm and 0/40 mm gradations, commonly used in Kenyan for construction of roads carrying over 10 million equivalent standard axles (MESA). While cement is often added to bind GCS fines, its effect on road performance had not been analyzed. This research assessed the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of GCS from three quarries, treated with 1%–5% cement and cured for 7, 14, and 28 days. Results showed that the 0/40 mm gradation outperformed 0/30 mm in UCS, with strength increasing steadily up to 4% cement content. Greatest UCS development occurred within the first 14 days of curing. A strong correlation (R² = 0.893) was found between UCS and the variables studied. The study recommends using 0/40 mm gradation, extended curing periods, and optimized cement content to meet performance requirements for roads with heavy traffic.
Graded crushed stone, cement, UCS, high traffic volume roads
This study investigated the design requirements for dry ports in Kenya, focusing on the Inland Container Depot Nairobi (ICDN), and specifically examined how logistics requirements and design considerations impact ICD operations. The study applied ICD and Queueing Theories and adopted a mixed-methods approach to understand the research problem. Stratified random sampling ensured representation across ICDN departments. Primary data was collected using a structured-questionnaire, and both descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted. Hypothesis testing accepted the alternative hypothesis. Regression results showed that design considerations and appropriate design requirements had a positive and significant impact on ICDN operations. The study concluded that ICDN's operational efficiency is significantly influenced by logistics requirements and design considerations. Key factors include seamless container flow, dwell time management, and alignment of infrastructure with customs policies. Design considerations had the greatest impact, underscoring the need for strategic infrastructure planning, enhanced rail integration, and improved stakeholder coordination.
Design requirements, ICD operations, logistics requirements
Performance Comparison of SUPERPAVE and Marshall Asphalt Mix Designs in Relation to Kenya’s Climatic Conditions
This study examines the effectiveness of asphalt mixes designed using the Marshall and Superior Performing Asphalt Pavement (SUPERPAVE) methodologies, assessing their suitability for Kenya’s diverse climatic conditions and traffic demands. A comprehensive characterisation of materials, including asphalt binders and aggregates, was conducted to ensure compliance with design criteria, followed by performance analyses comparing the two mix design approaches. Laboratory evaluations of hot mix asphalt (HMA) samples focused on key mechanical properties, including indirect tensile strength, Marshall stability, rutting resistance, and moisture susceptibility, to determine their viability for Kenyan road infrastructure. The findings indicate that incorporating Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS) into 60/70 penetration-grade bitumen substantially enhances strength, thermal stability, and structural integrity, making it highly suitable for high-traffic, high-temperature environments. SUPERPAVE-designed mixes outperformed Marshall mixes by optimising binder content, reducing asphalt usage, and significantly improving resistance to moisture damage, rutting, and long-term deterioration. Marshall stability and indirect tensile strength tests indicated higher initial strength values in SUPERPAVE mixes than Marshall mixes, and they were also more durable following moisture conditioning. Additionally, rut depth analysis confirmed that polymer-modified bitumen enhances rut resistance in SUPERPAVE HMA, outperforming neat bitumen. The study verified that the tested aggregates conform to relevant standards, reinforcing their suitability for high-performance asphalt applications. Given these findings, the study strongly advocates adopting SUPERPAVE as Kenya’s climate-responsive, performance-driven pavement design system. It emphasises the need for targeted capacity-building through specialised training programmes, pilot projects with performance monitoring, and economic feasibility assessments integrated with policy advocacy to facilitate its implementation. Furthermore, it calls for developing Kenya-specific binder and aggregate selection standards using the Performance-Graded (PG) system, enforcing stringent quality assurance protocols, and making necessary updates to national road design standards. By prioritising long-term cost efficiency and pavement resilience, the study emphasises the importance of fostering collaboration and knowledge exchange among industry stakeholders, ensuring sustainable advancements in Kenya’s road infrastructure.
Aggregates, asphalt binders, hot mix asphalt, climatic conditions, Marshall method, pavement performance, road infrastructure, SUPERPAVE, traffic loading
Characterisation of Vibrations of a Precast Reinforced Concrete Bridge:
The Kangundo Road bridge in Nairobi, Kenya, shows permanent mid-span deflections that may alter its dynamic behaviour and affect user comfort. This study assessed bridge vibrations using ADXL355 and MPU9250 accelerometers, collecting acceleration data at five soffit-mounted points. Acceleration, the most perceptible vibration parameter to humans, was analysed and compared to International Standards Organisation (ISO) 2631, Wright & Walker (1972), and American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Design Guide 11 comfort limits. T-test results showed that the measured peak accelerations significantly exceeded the ISO and Wright & Walker thresholds by up to 110%, while the AISC limits were only marginally surpassed. Heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) caused uncomfortable vibrations, while small vehicles remained within acceptable limits. Permanent deflections increase dynamic amplification, increase tensile stress and may cause fatigue damage. The study supports the use of stricter vibration limits in urban areas and confirms the effectiveness of low-cost sensors in monitoring bridge performance and vibration-related serviceability.
AISC design guide 11, bridge vibration, dynamic amplification, ISO 2631, Kangundo Road Bridge, low-cost accelerometers, Wright and Walker
Evaluating the Performance of Bitumen Emulsion Stabilized Bases in Low Volume Sealed Roads:
This paper presents a study on the performance evaluation of Bitumen Emulsion Stabilized Gravel Base on E443 road in Kiambu County. Kenyan manuals and guidelines do not provide criteria for performance evaluation of bitumen emulsion stabilized materials (BESM). This research characterizes the road construction materials and investigates their influence on the BESM base, evaluates both the quality compliance of the as-built constructed BESM base and the performance levels of the BESM base road against road construction standards. This study concludes that there was noncompliance to subgrade and subbase specifications resulting to inadequate BESM base support, and nonconformity of as-built BESM base to mix design specifications affected the base elastic modulus. E443 Road performance was rated poor due to poor drainage, poor road surface and low layers’ elastic modulus. Comprehensive studies on construction materials characterization at 10-years design life, BESM mix design on gravel used and performance levels’ correlation are recommended.
Bitumen emulsion, evaluation, performance, specifications, stabilized
Historic Urban Landscapes (HULs) is a landscape based approach to conservation of historic areas internationally since introduction in 2011 by UNESCO. They are important heritages that act as repositories of memories, histories contributing to identities besides tangible and intangible benefits that contribute to residents’ quality of life. This article seeks to illuminate HUL discourse in terms the scales, typologies, components, importance, emerging areas of concern in terms of challenges in its implementation, public participation aspects and the need for local laws, policies to protect, conserve and manage them. It’s based on content analysis using main term “Historic urban landscape” within open access platforms like Google and Google Scholar. Most existing studies have been conducted in Europe and Asia with Africa having very few. UNESCO has so far designated several sites as HULs across the world. Findings reveal that major components of HULs are natural, built and socio-cultural. HUL scales/typologies include city level, historic city centres, historic districts, historic ports, historic streetscapes and historic gardens that go beyond individual monuments. They are under threat from rapid urbanizations and fast transforming developments. Historic urban areas display dualism in terms of being both historic and cultural thus are considered as cultural landscapes as well. The study concludes that public participation in HUL issues is critical for success and there is need for more empirical studies to popularize its adoption in urban heritage planning. Recommendation is on enactment of laws and policies at various levels of government in different countries to identify, assess and inventorize with the main aim being conservation from threats. The findings are important to policy makers and heritage professionals in guiding HULs conservation and management.
Historic urban landscapes, historic landscapes, cultural landscapes, conservation, landscape approach, urban heritage, UNESCO