The Africa Habitat Review Journal seeks to advance knowledge and promote the exchange of ideas among stakeholders in the built environment. The journal provides a platform for disseminating scholarly research, innovative practices, and emerging technologies that inform policy, planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. By fostering dialogue between researchers, practitioners, and policymakers, the journal supports research and development aimed at improving the efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability of professional practice across Africa and beyond.
FBED Publications, University of Nairobi, 2025
Adoption of Green Roofs for Climate Change Adaptation in Nairobi CBD:
Nairobi’s Central Business District (CBD) is increasingly affected by environmental challenges, including the Urban Heat Island effect and flash flooding. Although green roofs offer effective solutions for temperature regulation and stormwater management, their adoption remains notably low. This study applied a mixed-methods approach, guided by the Diffusion of Innovations and Planned Behavior theories, to evaluate adoption factors among 110 stakeholders, including architects, developers, and regulators. Findings reveal a significant gap between positive perceptions and actual implementation. While stakeholders highly rate the aesthetic (M = 4.27) and environmental (M = 4.19) benefits of green roofs, they report limited practical exposure (M = 2.68) and technical training. Although retrofitting is viewed as feasible (M = 3.87), high initial costs—ranging from KSh 3,000 to 7,000/m²—remain a critical deterrent. The study concludes that favorable attitudes alone are insufficient for adoption, requiring mandatory regulations, standardized guidelines, and targeted financial incentives.
Green roofs, climate change adaptation, adoption, urban heat island, green infrastructure, mixed-methods, Nairobi
Copyright (c) 2026 AFRICA HABITAT REVIEW
Integrating African Design Technologies into Business Strategy:
This study explores how African cultural design technologies—including indigenous motifs, materials, and narratives—can be integrated into corporate business strategy to promote innovation and sustainability. Using a mixed-methods approach, the research surveyed 150 creative businesses across multiple African countries and conducted in-depth interviews with 20 cultural entrepreneurs. Guided by the Knowledge-Based View, Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions, and Sustainable Development theory, the study examines how blending modern business practices with traditional African design principles enhances firm performance. Findings indicate that cultural integration strengthens consumer engagement, builds brand loyalty, and generates sustainability benefits through the use of local resources and culturally rooted practices. Qualitative insights illustrate how these outcomes occur in practice, particularly through collaboration with artisans and community-based knowledge systems. By triangulating survey and interview data, the study provides an empirical model demonstrating that indigenous African design principles function as strategic assets for innovation, competitiveness, and sustainable business development.
African design; business strategy; innovation; sustainability; mixed-methods research
The Role of Car-Free Zones as Public Open Spaces in Enhancing Place Identity in Kigali City
Car-free zones as pedestrianized, non-motorized public open spaces within urban realms offer various functions based on their physical elements. The activities within foster special connections based on their physical characteristics, meanings and memories attached, leading to formation of place identity (PI). Despite the rapid emergence of car-free initiatives in African cities, limited empirical research has examined how such spaces contribute to place identity formation. There are few studies in Africa currently that delve into place-people relationships within car-free zones. The car-free zone within Kigali City’s central business district presents the case study. The study aimed first to analyze the functions of the space, second to analyze the physical elements and image of the space and lastly to investigate perceptions on PI. A mixed-methods approach was employed using a survey of 183 respondents, field investigation through photography and mapping. Regression analysis identified landscape values, such as air quality, recreation and therapeutic values as significant predictors of PI, while correlation analysis revealed moderate positive spatial associations.
Car-free zones, place identity, place attachment, landscape urbanism, urban public space, Kigali City
Assessment of Planned Urbanization and Rural Settlement Policy Implementation in Post-Genocide Rwanda (2018–2024)
The paper examines the Post-War Rwanda Government’s management approach to urbanization and rural settlement development. Through an End of Term Evaluation of the Second Urban and Rural Settlement Sector Strategic Plan (2018/19–2023/24), the paper seeks to understand what worked well, what did not, operational experience, opportunities, and challenges. The evaluation applied a theory of change approach to examine the effectiveness and impact of the policy and institutional framework in relation to its goals, inputs, and implementation actions. The findings provide evidence that Rwanda’s policies and management approach to urbanization and rural settlement development have largely achieved the set priorities and targets. However, aspects of the approach remain controversial and contested both domestically and internationally.
Planned urbanization and rural settlements, Imidugudu (grouped villages), agglomeration, urban sprawl, urbanization hierarchy, theory of change, one stop center, land use planning, informal settlements
Experimental Investigation of Interaction Effects of Integral Waterproofing Admixtures and Naphthalene-Based Superplasticizers on Fresh and Hardened Concrete
This study experimentally investigates the interaction between integral waterproofing admixtures and naphthalene-based superplasticizers in concrete, addressing limited evidence on their combined effects on fresh and hardened properties. A commercially adopted mix with varying admixture dosages was evaluated for slump, setting time, density, water absorption, compressive strength, and tensile splitting strength. Unit weight and density remained unchanged. Slump and setting times increased with superplasticizer dosage, while the waterproofing admixture showed minimal influence on fresh properties. Mechanical strength improved at moderate superplasticizer dosages but declined at higher levels, particularly around 3% by cement mass. Water absorption remained largely comparable across mixes. The results confirm that superplasticizer dosage governs performance, and excessive dosages reduce mechanical capacity. Controlled proportioning is therefore essential to optimize workability, strength, and durability in liquid-retaining concrete applications.
Integral waterproofing admixtures, Naphthalene-based superplasticizers, Admixture interaction mechanisms, Water absorption, Fresh and hardened concrete properties, Liquid-retaining concrete structures
Community Engagement in Open-Air Museums for Documenting Vernacular Architecture:
This paper explores how open-air museums use community engagement to preserve and transmit knowledge of vernacular architecture, and how these practices can inform architectural education. Drawing on qualitative data from two case studies, Bokrijk Open-Air Museum (Belgium) and Makumbusho Village Museum (Tanzania), the study compares institutional strategies for involving local communities, documenting building traditions, and supporting heritage-based learning. The findings reveal contrasting approaches. Bokrijk emphasises research-driven restoration, supported by government funding, where conservation is visible to the public and serves as a “living lab” for students and visitors. In contrast, Makumbusho emphasises grassroots co-creation, involving elders, artisans, and community members in maintaining traditional houses with indigenous techniques. Despite structural differences, both museums prioritise community knowledge, cultural relevance, and hands-on learning. The study demonstrates that open-air museums can bridge vernacular heritage and architectural pedagogy, offering lessons for sustainability, contextual design, and climate-resilient construction.
Bokrijk, climate resilience, community engagement, comparative study, heritage preservation, makumbusho, open-air museums, vernacular architecture
This study examines the intersection of spatial design and social equity through a qualitative case study of the Buxton Point Affordable Housing Project in Mombasa, Kenya. Using a dignity matrix incorporating spatial, material, cultural, and procedural parameters, it evaluates the project’s alignment with national housing goals and international norms of human dignity. Findings reveal strong technical compliance with construction standards but identify deficiencies in inclusivity, transparency, and participatory planning. The results demonstrate that dignified housing extends beyond physical adequacy to embrace justice, belonging, and community representation. The paper argues that embedding structured community participation and post-occupancy evaluation within Kenya’s Affordable Housing Programme is essential to ensure that “building justice” is not only designed but also democratically realized. Ultimately, the study underscores the need for rights-based, participatory frameworks that integrate social values into urban development and housing policy in rapidly urbanizing African cities.
AHP, affordable housing, dignity, spatial justice, human-centered design, procedural inclusion, buxton point, Kenya
Reframing Sustainability in East African Cities:
This study examined how sustainability in the built environment was redefined through community-driven practices in rapidly urbanizing cities of East Africa. Moving beyond technocratic and Northern-centric models, it adopted a Southern urbanism perspective to highlight localized, adaptive approaches to urban transformation. Employing a qualitative, multi-method design—comprising document analysis, semi-structured interviews, and comparative case studies from Nairobi, Kampala, and Dar es Salaam—the research focused on three initiatives: the Mukuru Special Planning Area, the Bwaise Upgrading Project, and the Chamazi Eco-Village. Findings revealed a shift toward place-based, inclusive sustainability frameworks grounded in lived experience, participatory governance, and informal systems. Community agency and co-production were central in advancing spatial justice and environmental adaptation. Nonetheless, institutional fragmentation, centralized governance, and limited recognition of informality constrained implementation. The study concluded that reframing sustainability through a Southern urbanism lens provides a dynamic, context-responsive, and equitable pathway for shaping resilient urban futures in the Global South.
Co-production, governance, informality, participatory planning, resilience, sustainability, urban transformation
Service Life of Floor Finishes in Nairobi’s Public Buildings:
Accurate knowledge of the long-term performance of building materials, particularly the service life of components and systems, is fundamental to sustainable construction practices. In Kenya, limited application of service life assessment and prediction has contributed to economic, social, environmental, and physical challenges, including high maintenance costs, aesthetic deterioration, increased material waste, safety risks, and adverse environmental impacts. This study investigated common floor finish types used in public office buildings, the motivations behind their selection, and their observed service life based on field data, with the aim of informing sustainable material selection and maintenance planning. Data were collected from 49 public office buildings using a mixed-methods approach and analysed through comparative interpretation. Findings indicate that the predominant floor finishes are ceramic tiles, granito tiles, terrazzo, and carpets. Observed service life, defined as the period between installation and replacement, ranged from 39.5 to 49 years and was strongly influenced by building function and changing aesthetic preferences, particularly in representational spaces. Premature replacement was found to undermine sustainability by increasing waste and life-cycle costs. The study recommends integrating service life prediction models into design decision-making to balance aesthetics and durability, contributing to localized, evidence-based maintenance policy and improved resource efficiency.
Service life prediction, sustainable construction, floor finishes, public buildings, life-cycle costing, circular design
Editorial Resilient African Cities: Infrastructure, Climate Innovation and Inclusive Development Welcome to the Twenty-first Volume, 1st Issue of the Africa Habitat Review–Journal of the Faculty of Built Environment and Design. This issue presents critically analysed papers on matters relating to sustainable materials, urban resilience, construction management, social justice, heritage preservation, innovative business strategy, and spatial planning across Africa. Collectively, the contributions foreground context-sensitive research and practice, offering grounded insights into the evolving relationships between people, policy, infrastructure, and the built environment on the continent. Service Life of Floor Finishes in Nairobi’s Public Buildings: Lessons for Sustainable Materials presents a timely reflection on the importance of durability and long-term performance in sustainable construction. The paper draws attention to how premature replacement of floor finishes, often driven by shifting aesthetic preferences rather than structural failure, contributes to unnecessary waste, increased maintenance costs, and weakened resource efficiency. This editorial recognizes the study’s significance in advancing evidence-based material selection and localized maintenance planning, while reinforcing the need to integrate service life prediction into design practice in Kenya’s public building sector. Reframing Sustainability in East African Cities: Community Perspectives in the Built Environment offers a compelling challenge to conventional, technocratic interpretations of sustainability by centring lived experience, local agency, and participatory urban practice. Through a Southern urbanism lens, the paper demonstrates how communities in Nairobi, Kampala, and Dar es Salaam are actively reshaping sustainability as an inclusive and adaptive process grounded in place-specific realities. This editorial highlights the study’s contribution to debates on spatial justice, informality, and resilient urban futures, while affirming the value of community knowledge in redefining sustainable urban transformation in East Africa. Construction Delays in Rwanda's Local Government Projects: A Statistical Framework for Management makes an important empirical contribution to the understanding of infrastructure delivery challenges within Rwanda’s development agenda. By demonstrating the dominant influence of financial factors on project delays, the paper offers a robust statistical basis for targeted reforms in planning, payment systems, and technical capacity enhancement. This editorial underscores the relevance of the proposed Rwanda Construction Delay Management Framework as a practical and policy-oriented tool capable of improving efficiency, accountability, and project implementation outcomes in local government construction. The Geometry of Building Justice: Exploring Dignity Through the Buxton Point Affordable Housing Project, Kenya advances a critical conversation on the relationship between housing, justice, and human dignity in rapidly urbanizing contexts. The paper shows that while technical compliance is necessary, it is not sufficient to guarantee inclusive and dignified living environments. This editorial acknowledges the study’s strength in revealing how participation, transparency, and representation are central to just housing delivery, and it affirms the paper’s call for rights-based and democratically grounded frameworks within Kenya’s Affordable Housing Programme. Two-Phase Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil in Kenya Using Sodium Chloride and Cement addresses one of the most persistent engineering challenges affecting infrastructure development in expansive soil regions. By proposing a staged stabilization method that improves strength and reduces shrinkage while remaining environmentally compliant, the paper provides a practical and sustainable solution for problematic soils in Kenya. This editorial recognizes the study’s contribution to geotechnical innovation, cost-effective construction practice, and environmentally responsible infrastructure delivery in regions where soil instability continues to constrain development. Community Engagement in Open-Air Museums for Documenting Vernacular Architecture: A Comparative Case Study of Bokrijk and Makumbusho provides a thoughtful exploration of how community participation can strengthen heritage preservation and architectural learning. By comparing the research-driven model of Bokrijk with the grassroots co-creation approach of Makumbusho, the paper reveals the diverse ways in which vernacular knowledge can be documented, transmitted, and sustained. This editorial highlights the manuscript’s importance in bridging cultural heritage and design education, while underscoring the role of open-air museums as living spaces for contextual, sustainable, and climate-responsive architectural pedagogy. Experimental Investigation of Interaction Effects of Integral Waterproofing Admixtures and Naphthalene-Based Superplasticizers on Fresh and Hardened Concrete contributes valuable technical insight into the optimization of concrete performance in construction practice. The paper carefully demonstrates that while superplasticizers can enhance workability and strength at moderate levels, excessive dosages compromise mechanical performance. This editorial draws attention to the study’s practical significance for engineers and material specialists, particularly in liquid-retaining structures, and emphasizes its broader contribution to quality control, durability, and evidence-based admixture proportioning in concrete technology. Integrating African Design Technologies Into Business Strategy: A Mixed-Methods Study On Innovation And Sustainability positions African cultural knowledge, motifs, materials, and narratives as strategic resources within contemporary business and innovation ecosystems. The paper persuasively demonstrates that indigenous design principles can enhance firm performance, deepen consumer engagement, and support sustainable development through culturally rooted practices and local resource use. This editorial recognizes the study’s originality in reframing African design not merely as heritage, but as a dynamic and competitive business asset with growing relevance for entrepreneurship, sustainability, and global market positioning. Assessment of Planned Urbanization and Rural Settlement Policy Implementation in Post-Genocide Rwanda (2018–2024) presents a critical review of Rwanda’s efforts to manage urbanization and rural settlement through structured policy and institutional reform. The paper provides valuable evidence of progress while also acknowledging the contested dimensions of implementation and governance that accompany such ambitious national strategies. This editorial highlights the study’s importance in contributing to debates on state-led planning, development effectiveness, and post-conflict transformation, while offering useful reflections on what has worked, what remains challenged, and what can inform future policy directions. The Role Of Car-Free Zones As Public Open Spaces In Enhancing Place Identity In Kigali City offers an insightful examination of how pedestrianized public spaces foster urban meaning, memory, and social attachment. By connecting physical elements, user perceptions, and experiential values, the paper demonstrates that car-free zones are not simply traffic interventions, but important sites of place-making and identity formation. This editorial acknowledges the study’s relevance to contemporary urban design and public space discourse in Africa, particularly as cities increasingly seek inclusive, healthy, and people-centred environments that support recreation, environmental quality, and social belonging. Taken together, the papers in this issue demonstrate the richness and urgency of built environment scholarship in Africa today. They reveal a shared commitment to advancing sustainability, justice, innovation, and resilience through research that is both analytically rigorous and deeply grounded in context. This volume therefore not only contributes to academic discourse, but also offers meaningful direction for practitioners, policymakers, and communities engaged in shaping more equitable and sustainable human settlements across the continent.
VOLUME 21 ISSUE 1 (APRIL, 2026) CONTENT VII Editorial Prof. Robert W. Rukwaro 3698 Service Life of Floor Finishes in Nairobi’s Public Buildings: Lessons for Sustainable Materials Olivia S. O. Mwembe, Njeri Wachira-Towey and Anthony Oduor Ralwala 3714 Reframing Sustainability in East African Cities: Community Perspectives in the Built Environment George K. Nyamu 3738 Construction Delays in Rwanda's Local Government Projects: A Statistical Framework for Management Niyomfura Eric, Adeline Dindi and Abednego O. Gwaya 3750 The Geometry of Building Justice: Exploring Dignity through the Buxton Point Affordable Housing Project, Kenya Yasir Brek 3768 Two-Phase Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil in Kenya Using Sodium Chloride and Cement Akiyama Yoshikuni, Sakata Izumi, Sakamaki Katsuyuki, Kobayashi Mizuho, Akiyama Sayaka, Fukami Fumiya, Martin Mbidhi and G. N. Hinga 3782 Community Engagement in Open-Air Museums for Documenting Vernacular Architecture: A Comparative Case Study of Bokrijk and Makumbusho Rweyemamu Valentine Vedasto, Koenraad Van Cleempoel, Els Hannes, Shubira Leonidas Kalugila and Sarah Phoya 3796 Experimental Investigation of Interaction Effects of Integral Waterproofing Admixtures and Naphthalene-Based Superplasticizers on Fresh and Hardened Concrete Mwangi Irungu, Siphila Wanjiku and Silvester Abuodha 3816 Integrating African Design Technologies into Business Strategy: A Mixed-Methods Study on Innovation and Sustainability Henry Wanakuta, Nathaniel B. Walker and Amani Khan 3830 Assessment of Planned Urbanization and Rural Settlement Policy Implementation in Post-Genocide Rwanda (2018–2024) Peter M. Ngau 3846 The Role of Car-Free Zones as Public Open Spaces in Enhancing Place Identity in Kigali City Edwin Oluoch K’oyoo and Frank Bagenzi 3862 Adoption of Green Roofs for Climate Change Adaptation in Nairobi CBD: A Mixed-Methods Study Catherine Achieng, Sunday Abuje and Martin Mbidhi
The Africa Habitat Review Journal seeks to advance knowledge and promote the exchange of ideas among scholars, practitioners, policymakers, and other stakeholders in the built environment. The journal provides a platform for disseminating research, innovation, and professional practice that respond to emerging technologies, research developments, and contemporary challenges, with the aim of improving the efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability of the sector. It encourages contributions from both academic and professional communities and supports research that informs policy dialogue and decision-making. The journal explicitly links theory and practice within Kenyan, regional, and international contexts.
Structural Failures and Development Control in Kenya:
Shelter is a fundamental human need, yet in many rapidly urbanising African cities, the pursuit of affordable housing has increasingly produced unsafe buildings and recurrent structural failures. In Kenya, frequent building collapses over recent decades have resulted in loss of life, injuries, displacement, and substantial economic losses. This paper examines the relationship between structural failures and development control in Kenya using a qualitative, desk-based analytical approach grounded in documentary and comparative review. It situates the Kenyan experience within broader global and regional urbanisation dynamics, reviews the contemporary statutory and institutional framework governing development control, and synthesises empirical and documentary evidence on the causes of building collapse. Drawing on comparative literature from Kenya, Nigeria, and wider urban studies, the paper identifies key drivers of failure, including weak regulatory enforcement, engagement of unqualified practitioners, rent-seeking and corruption, technical design and construction deficiencies, poor maintenance, and inadequate regulatory review. The analysis develops a conceptual framework that links regulatory architecture, institutional capacity, professional ethics, and developer behaviour to building performance outcomes. It advances policy-oriented recommendations to improve safety, accountability, and resilience in Kenya’s construction sector.
Building safety, structural failure, building collapse, development control, regulatory enforcement, construction governance, professional ethics, institutional capacity, urbanisation, Kenya
Copyright (c) 2025 AFRICA HABITAT REVIEW
Industry 4.0 and Construction Project Labour Productivity (CPLP) in Kenya:
The persistent stagnation of labour productivity in the construction sector poses a critical challenge to economic growth in developing countries, including Kenya. The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has been widely promoted as a transformative solution capable of reversing this trend through digitalisation, automation, and data-driven decision-making. This study critically evaluates whether the adoption of 4IR technologies constitutes a viable pathway (panacea) to improving Construction Project Labour Productivity (CPLP) or whether it introduces implementation risks (sinking sand) that undermine expected gains. Anchored in post-positivist and pragmatic research paradigms, the study draws on previously developed CPLP predictive models based on empirical project data from Nairobi. The models demonstrate that Project Information Flow (PIF) and Project Materials Flow (PMF) jointly explain 88.0% of the variations in CPLP. A reflexive qualitative analysis is then employed to interrogate the practical feasibility of translating these theoretical gains into on-site productivity improvements. Findings indicate that while 4IR technologies can significantly enhance PIF and PMF, their effectiveness depends on human capacity, infrastructure readiness, and change management. Without these enabling conditions, technology adoption risks becoming counterproductive. The study concludes by proposing a strategic implementation framework to convert 4IR potential into measurable productivity outcomes.
Construction project labour productivity, industry 4.0, project information flow, project materials flow, Kenya, predictive modelling, digital transformation, developing countries
In Nairobi’s informal settlements, land tenure insecurity perpetuates poverty, eviction risks, and limited service access. This study examines Baba Dogo in Ruaraka Sub-County, where undocumented claims, bureaucracy, and socio-economic vulnerabilities hinder investments. Amid rapid Sub-Saharan urbanization, community-based organizations (CBOs) mobilize financial and social capital—through savings groups, microfinance, cooperatives, and trust networks—to secure land rights. Using mixed methods (78-household survey, key informant interviews, focus groups, and secondary data), findings show 80.8% ownership claims, though 69.2% lack documentation and 98.7% perceive insecurity. CBOs improved credit access by 40% via SACCOs, secured long-term possession for 20% through Community Land Trusts, and formalized 35% of leases through Akiba Mashinani Trust. These actions averted evictions for 50% of participants and improved 45% of housing and service conditions. While limited by a small sample and single-site focus, the study advances understanding of community-led tenure strategies and supports policies integrating CBO participation and hybrid tenure models.
Land tenure insecurity, informal settlements Nairobi, community-based organizations, capital mobilization, grassroots empowerment, sustainable urban development, eviction prevention, ownership formalization, urban equity
Understanding Place Dependence in Landscape Settings:
This review synthesizes place dependence (PD) as a functional component of place attachment (PA) and sense of place (SOP) within landscape settings. Using a content-analysis approach, we screened titles/abstracts/keywords for “place dependence” across Scopus, Science Direct, and Google Scholar, including cognate terms (place identity, place attachment, sense of place). Fifty-four (54) studies published between 1983 and 2025 met inclusion criteria spanning urban parks, wetlands, traditional streets, coastal corridors, and city-scale public spaces, with very limited African representation. The review finds that place quality (amenities, accessibility, diversity, safety, good upkeep) and place expectation (activities, goals, needs) consistently determine PD, moderated by evaluation, preference, and unwillingness to move. Methods are predominantly quantitative (≈70–72%) using 4–6 Likert-type PD items adapted from Williams & Vaske and related instruments; mixed methods are increasing, while qualitative designs remain under-represented. We propose a conceptual framework linking PD principles relating to place quality/expectation and outcomes (connections, experiences, social interactions) to guide place making and place keeping in landscape planning and governance. Practically, PD can inform programming, amenity mixes, and maintenance standards to improve user satisfaction and stewardship. Gaps include African cases, consistent reporting of PD sub-dimensions, and multi-method triangulation. The review recommends mixed-methods protocols and PD-led evaluation prior to design interventions to link theory, policy and place making practice.
Content analysis, landscape planning, place attachment, place dependence, place identity, place making, sense of place
Predictive Machine Learning Modeling of Urban Traffic Air Pollution:
Air pollution in Africa is a growing yet often overlooked threat, worsened by rapid industrialization, urban expansion, and road traffic. This study examines the impact of traffic flow and meteorological conditions on urban air quality along the Entebbe–Kampala corridor in Uganda. Traffic monitoring and air quality measurements were conducted using AirQo mobile sensors. Motorcycles, saloon cars, and light goods vehicles dominated traffic, while heavy trucks contributed minimally. Pearson correlation, regression, and XGBoost models analyzed pollutant relationships, with SHAP explaining variable contributions. Results showed PM₂.₅ peaks at night due to stable atmospheric conditions limiting dispersion. Regression analysis revealed strong positive relationships between Average Daily Traffic and PM₂.₅, CO₂, and TVOCs (R² = 0.89–0.99). Wind speed explained 45–71% of pollutant variance. The study underscores the need for integrated urban air quality policies focusing on traffic control, speed regulation, and fuel efficiency to mitigate emissions in rapidly urbanizing African cities.
Entebbe-Kampala Road, machine learning, PM2.5, traffic emissions, urban air quality, Uganda
Navigating Urban Sprawl and Green Space Loss:
Urban sprawl poses a significant threat to green spaces in rapidly expanding cities like Nairobi, Kenya, undermining both environmental sustainability and social equity. This paper explores the dynamics of green space degradation, using Kahawa West Community Park as a case study to inform targeted interventions. The study aimed to identify the key factors driving park degradation, assess community usage and perceptions, evaluate the effectiveness of current management strategies, and propose sustainable development strategies. Using a mixed-methods approach, data was gathered through surveys (n=338), interviews with key informants, and field observations. The results revealed severe park decline: 68% of respondents rated cleanliness as poor or very poor, citing waste accumulation and lack of sanitation, while 62% reported significant biodiversity loss due to habitat fragmentation. Infrastructure was also in poor condition, with 70% of respondents identifying inadequate facilities. Despite these challenges, only 25% of residents visited the park regularly, with safety concerns and a lack of recreational amenities cited as major barriers. The study highlights the failure of management, as evidenced by low ratings of coordination and responsiveness, and identifies funding shortages (75%) and encroachment (80%) as significant challenges. Findings emphasize the need for policies that protect urban green spaces, with recommendations focused on collaborative governance, sustainable financing, and targeted interventions to address the consequences of sprawl. This research contributes to the ongoing discourse on sustainable urbanism, offering practical insights for policymakers in Nairobi and other rapidly growing cities.
Urban sprawl, green space degradation, Nairobi, sustainable development, community perceptions, management practices, biodiversity loss, policy reforms, collaborative governance, peri-urban planning
A Planning Framework for Flood Mitigation in Nakuru City, Kenya
Flooding has become an increasingly critical challenge in Nakuru City exacerbated by both natural and human-induced factors. This study aimed to develop a comprehensive planning framework for flood mitigation within Nakuru City by examining the causes and proposing potential solutions to flooding. Observations on flooding roads in Kaptembwa, emerging of fault lines in Eveready and sink holes in Rhonda was captured through photography. Annual rainfall data was acquired from Kenya Meteorological Department with an interval of five years from1985. Sentinel 2 data from Copernicus Data Hub was used in land use analysis and determining the topography of the area while Landsat 8 image was used to examine the extent of Lake Nakuru over years and mapping flood hotspot areas. SPSS was used to analyze both spatial and statistical data for floods. Findings revealed that Nakuru City’s flooding is primarily driven by intense rainfall, topography, poor drainage infrastructure and unregulated urban development. The paper proposes a flood mitigation framework focused on sustainable land-use planning, environmental conservation, stakeholder collaboration, and early warning systems. The study will give guidelines for urban planning practices in areas that were found to be highly susceptible to flooding. Policies can then be crafted through various departments to tackle environmental planning, disaster management and urban resilience. Residence of affected areas can also use this research to plan ahead and mitigate dangers of flooding.
Flooding, urban planning, mitigation framework, geographic information systems and spatial analysis, Nakuru City, resilience, urban flooding and land use change
Assessing Household Vulnerability to Climate Risks in Mukuru Special Planning Area (SPA), Nairobi:
Households in Nairobi’s Mukuru Special Planning Area (SPA) face overlapping vulnerabilities driven by poverty, insecure tenure, and recurrent climate hazards. Guided by the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework and Social-Ecological Systems theory, this mixed-method spatial analysis combined 376 household surveys, six focus group discussions, and GIS mapping. Results show that flood exposure (β = 0.47), improved sanitation (β = −0.21), and income (β = −0.16) were the strongest determinants of household vulnerability, collectively explaining over 90% of its variance. Households relying on informal employment and living in flood-prone zones faced heightened risks, while access to sanitation, secure tenure, and early preparedness substantially reduced exposure. Findings underscore that resilience in Mukuru is infrastructural, social, and institutional, calling for participatory, household-centred planning that links service provision, tenure security, and adaptive capacity-building to equitable climate resilience.
Climate justice; climate risks; household vulnerability; mixed-methods spatial analysis; Mukuru Special Planning Area (SPA); resilience planning; urban climate resilience
Land Use Consolidation as a Tool for Sustainable Rural Development in Kenya:
This study examined land use consolidation as a strategic planning approach to advance sustainable rural development in Kenya, with a specific focus on Tabaka Ward in Kisii County. It highlights how agricultural land fragmentation and conversion—driven by population growth, inheritance customs, and prevailing land tenure systems—have eroded productivity and weakened rural resilience. Adopting a qualitative case study design, the research employed document analysis, field observations, and interviews with community members and key informants. Data were obtained from 27 households and five experts, who were purposively selected for their knowledge and experience. The collected information was analysed using NVivo for thematic coding and ArcGIS for spatial interpretation to identify key patterns and relationships. The findings revealed four major impediments to sustainable rural development: socio-cultural norms, economic disparities, speculative land markets, and weak governance structures. The study concludes that community-led, voluntary, and tenure-responsive land-use consolidation initiatives can significantly improve rural productivity and lay the foundation for inclusive and sustainable land management policies in Kenya.
Human settlement, community involvement, land use consolidation, participatory planning, sustainability, rural development, land-use management, customary land tenure
Spatial-Temporal Impacts of Port Development on City Land Use:
This study examines the spatial-temporal impacts of port development on land use in Mombasa, Kenya, with a focus on the Port Reitz area. Using Landsat 9 imagery (2010–2022), Land-Use and Land-Cover (LULC) analysis, and Pearson correlation tests, the research assessed how port expansion influenced vegetation cover, open spaces, and built-up areas. Results reveal strong negative correlations between port development and vegetation (r = –0.9595) and open spaces (r = –0.9981), indicating significant ecological decline and urban land-use transformation. Qualitative findings from key informants confirmed that uncoordinated port growth has displaced livelihoods and degraded natural environments. The study concludes that port development, while economically beneficial, compromises urban sustainability when detached from spatial planning. It recommends integrated port–city master planning, public participation, and green corridor initiatives to balance development with ecological preservation in line with SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
Port development, land use, sustainable development, land cover, GIS, Mombasa, Kenya
Performance of Mortgage-Financed Construction Projects in Kenya:
Mortgage-financed construction projects (MFCPs) in Kenya are widely perceived to underperform, yet empirical evidence specific to mortgage-financed delivery remains scarce. This study evaluates MFCP performance across five indicators, cost, schedule, quality, safety, and cash flow, using a cross-sectional survey of 171 developers drawn from 1,063 mortgages initiated in FY 2021/2022. Results show 67.5% of projects exceed budgets (mean overrun 9.9%) and 65% are behind schedule (mean overrun 9.4%); 59.3% meet quality expectations with a mean rework cost of 6.1%; nearly 18% report serious safety incidents; and cash-flow constraints are moderate on average. These findings substantiate a persistent performance gap in mortgage-backed delivery relative to benchmarks in the wider construction sector. Practically, the study recommends performance-based lender monitoring, targeted products for the “missing middle” (KSh 21–100M), and developer investment in digital cost/schedule control and safety/quality training. Policy-wise, results inform the Affordable Housing Programme by linking financing models to delivery risks. Originality lies in isolating MFCPs as a distinct financing modality and quantifying their KPI profile to guide lenders, regulators, and developers.
Construction project performance; mortgage finance; cost and schedule overruns; quality and safety; cash-flow management; affordable housing; survey research; Kenya
Multicriteria Evaluation of the Quality of Service (QoS) of Informal Public Transport (IPT):
Kenya's Informal Public Transport (IPT) sector faces substantial challenges, including absence of demand-based licensing leading to corridor oversupply and undersupply imbalances, limited coverage, and poor service quality. These deficiencies result in high transportation costs that disproportionately burden low-income households, consuming significant portions of wages and salaries. The financial strain particularly affects captive riders who, lacking alternatives, must bear these costs regardless of economic circumstances. Conversely, choice riders with alternative travel options may select different transport modes when service quality deteriorates or costs escalate. This disparity highlights inequitable access to affordable mobility. This study evaluates Quality of Service (QoS) in urban public transport to enhance productivity, affordability, and passenger satisfaction. Employing a multi-criteria assessment approach, the research analyzes key QoS indicators including affordability, waiting time, travel time, seat comfort, safety, and driver behavior. A questionnaire-based survey of 2,402 public bus passengers in the Nairobi Metropolitan Area examined overall quality of satisfaction levels, relationships with 14 specific service attributes, demographic variables, passenger experience, and gender disparities. Results revealed overall quality of satisfaction at 46.8%. Logistic regression analysis identified road safety and vehicle cleanliness as the most crucial factors for overall satisfaction, followed by service frequency, fare, driving behavior, and security. Gender analysis showed females less satisfied with road safety and punctuality than males. Conductor behavior correlated with overall satisfaction only for females, while service frequency and facility cleanliness correlated only for males. Harassment experiences negatively affected both genders' satisfaction, with particularly pronounced effects for females. Given the relatively high satisfaction levels regarding frequency, coverage, and connectivity, the public bus system possesses positive attributes. In evaluating these advantages of the public bus industry, it is advisable for the entire public transport sector to address the aforementioned issues and enhance satisfaction with crucial service attributes with prioritisation.
Nairobi Metropolitan Area (NMA), Quality of Service (QoS), Customer Satisfaction, Informal Public Transport (IPT), Overall Satisfaction, Nairobi Public Transport Sector, Passenger satisfaction, Logistic regression Analysis
A Machine Learning–Based Computational Framework for Road Performance Assessment in Developing Countries:
Road infrastructure assessment in developing countries remains fragmented. Existing methods focus on isolated dimensions such as pavement condition or geometric design, limiting their utility for comprehensive planning. This study develops the first holistic road quality assessment framework, applying knowledge distillation techniques to Kenya's national road dataset (260,773 segments). Six infrastructure dimensions—surface condition, material type, geometric design, facilities, usage patterns, and functional classification—were integrated into a universal scoring system. The Random Forest teacher model (R² = 0.93; MAE = 0.0051) was successfully distilled into an interpretable polynomial regression formula. Results show that surface condition has the highest influence (37.3%), followed by infrastructure facilities (20.0%), usage patterns (14.6%), and functional classification (11.6%). The framework captures the heterogeneity of Kenya's road network, where 85.1% of roads are unpaved. This work represents the first synthesis of multiple infrastructure criteria into a unified, quantitative formula. The distillation of complex machine learning into an interpretable polynomial equation enables consistent, reproducible road quality scoring. The methodology is transferable—other countries can adapt the six-dimension framework by recalibrating weights to reflect local infrastructure priorities. This provides an evidence-based tool for infrastructure planning, maintenance prioritization, and policy decision-making. Countries with existing road inventory systems can implement this framework by retraining the model on their data to derive context-appropriate dimensional weights.
Road assessment, machine learning, knowledge distillation, infrastructure management, developing countries, road quality, pavement management and pavement condition
Green Infrastructure for Urban Resilience:
Increasing climate variability challenges urban stormwater management in rapidly growing African cities, with Nairobi exemplifying the crisis: traditional grey infrastructure proves structurally unsound, socially inequitable, and inadequate against frequent floods. This study systematically introduces green infrastructure (GI)—such as permeable surfaces, rain gardens, and bioretention systems—as a resilience-building mechanism. Objectives encompass assessing current stormwater challenges, evaluating GI's hydrological and ecological benefits, analyzing socio-economic and governance barriers to adoption, and identifying mainstreaming strategies in Nairobi's planning. Employing a mixed-methods case study across five sub-areas (Kibera, Mukuru, Langata, Lunga Lunga, Kasarani), the research integrates surveys (N=150 residents; N=26 officials/stakeholders), field observations, GIS mapping, and reviews of policy documents. Quantitative data underwent SPSS analysis via descriptive statistics, ANOVA, and chi-square tests; qualitative insights employed thematic analysis in NVivo; GIS visualized drainage networks, impervious surfaces, and flood hotspots. Findings reveal stark infrastructural inequities: 82-88% of informal settlement residents rate drainage as poor, versus 47% in Kasarani, with ANOVA confirming significant flood frequency disparities (p<0.05). Kibera and Mukuru experience nearly triple Kasarani's annual floods, exacerbated by a 32% impervious surface increase since 2000 (χ²=28.7, p<0.01) and poor maintenance (r=-0.46, p<0.05). Socio-economic tolls include average annual household losses of KES 35,000, business losses of KES 70,000, industrial damages up to KES 250,000, and 38% cholera prevalence in Kibera/Mukuru (χ²=34.5, p<0.01). GI demonstrates hydrological, ecological, and socio-economic advantages, yet requires integration with waste management, preventive maintenance, and community engagement for efficacy. Governance hurdles—fragmented mandates (58%) and inadequate budgets (72%)—persist, but enabling mechanisms like participatory stewardship and innovative financing (e.g., climate funds, green bonds) offer pathways forward. Theoretically and practically, this positions GI not merely as ecological but as a socio-political-economic tool for resilient urban Africa.
Green infrastructure; stormwater management; Nairobi; urban resilience; climate adaptation; socio-economic vulnerability; governance fragmentation; nature-based solutions; informal settlements; urban sustainability
Harnessing Climate Finance for Solid Waste Management in Nairobi:
This paper explores harnessing climate finance, particularly carbon credits, to address Nairobi's solid waste management challenges. The city generates approximately 3,500 tonnes of waste daily, with over 60% organic, yet only 45% is recycled or reused, leading to pollution and health risks from unmanaged dumps. The study examines waste-to-energy, composting, and recycling as means to generate carbon credits for funding sustainable infrastructure. Key projects, such as the proposed 45 MW Nairobi Waste-to-Energy Plant (projected to reduce 1.8 million tonnes of CO₂ over 20 years) and the Circular Economy Composting Project (diverting waste, creating 12,000 jobs, and benefiting 50,000 farmers), demonstrate emission reductions and economic gains. Challenges include insufficient funding (cited by 30% of respondents), regulatory gaps, and institutional fragmentation. Recommendations involve strengthening public-private partnerships, enhancing regulatory frameworks, and integrating carbon finance strategies to promote sustainability, resilience, and alignment with global climate goals.
Climate change resilience, ambient environment, circular economy, green/ climate finance, climate smart solutions, carbon credits, waste management, sustainability, emission reductions
Editorial Transforming African Cities: Design Technologies, Urban Systems, And Environmental Sustainability Welcome to the Twentieth Volume 3rd Issue of the Africa Habitat Review-Journal of the Faculty of Built Environment and Design. This issue presents critically analysed papers on matters relating to Transforming African Cities: Design Technologies, Urban Systems, and Environmental Sustainability. Harnessing Climate Finance for Solid Waste Management in Nairobi presents a timely interrogation of how African cities can transition from linear, waste-heavy urban metabolisms to circular, regenerative systems through market-based climate mechanisms. As cities like Nairobi struggle with overwhelming waste volumes and insufficient management infrastructure, this paper shows how carbon markets, circular economy models, and emissions-reduction strategies offer viable pathways to sustainable transformation. The study not only quantifies potential emissions reductions but also reframes urban waste as a climate asset capable of attracting global finance. This editorial highlights the paper’s contribution to climate urbanism, policy innovation, and Kenya’s pursuit of green urban resilience. The article titled Multicriteria Evaluation of the Quality of Service (QoS) of Informal Public Transport offers a nuanced and data-rich assessment of Nairobi’s informal transport ecosystem—an essential yet structurally under-serviced mobility network. This editorial highlights the manuscript’s strength in combining gender analysis, satisfaction indices, behavioural attributes, and service-level indicators to expose systemic inequalities and service inefficiencies in the IPT sector. The study’s refined application of multi-criteria evaluation provides strong policy guidance for metropolitan transport reform, particularly as African cities move toward equitable, safe, and demand-responsive mobility systems. Green Infrastructure for Urban Resilience advances an urgently needed rethinking of stormwater management within African urbanism. As climate variability intensifies, the limitations of grey infrastructure become increasingly evident. This paper positions nature-based solutions not merely as ecological amenities but as socio-political tools that address inequality, public health, and disaster risk in Nairobi. The editorial underscores the paper’s layered methodology—combining GIS, hydrology, and governance analysis—to propose an integrated resilience framework applicable to African cities grappling with flooding, informality, and infrastructural neglect. The paper, A Machine Learning–Based Computational Framework for Road Performance Assessment, marks a significant methodological advancement in infrastructure evaluation in developing countries. By distilling a high-performing Random Forest model into an interpretable polynomial equation, the study bridges the gap between computational sophistication and policy usability. This editorial highlights how this research offers a replicable, scalable, and evidence-based model that can transform road maintenance prioritisation and investment planning—particularly in contexts where roads remain a critical determinant of social and economic mobility. In Performance of Mortgage-Financed Construction Projects in Kenya, the authors confront a largely under-researched space: how mortgage financing shapes construction performance outcomes. This editorial highlights the study’s empirical breadth, revealing cost overruns, schedule delays, safety lapses, and quality inefficiencies that widen the performance gap in the affordable housing supply chain. The paper’s implications for financial institutions, developers, and policymakers align strongly with ongoing national housing reforms, providing a grounded reference for risk mitigation in Kenya’s expanding mortgage market. The article, A Planning Framework for Flood Mitigation in Nakuru City, offers a holistic, spatially grounded perspective on one of Kenya’s fastest-growing urban centres. By integrating climatic data, GIS analysis, and on-ground observations, the study proposes a systematic approach to flood resilience centred on land-use planning, environmental conservation, and multi-stakeholder coordination. This editorial acknowledges the paper’s relevance to national disaster-preparedness discourse and its potential to guide policy reforms in secondary cities increasingly vulnerable to climate extremes. Spatial-Temporal Impacts of Port Development on City Land Use offers a critical and timely examination of how port expansion reshapes urban ecologies, economies, and settlement patterns. The paper’s findings—linking vegetation loss and open-space decline to port development—open an important discussion on the sustainability of infrastructural megaprojects in African coastal cities. This editorial highlights its contribution to debates on port–city integration, ecological preservation, and the governance of strategic economic zones. The study Land Use Consolidation as a Tool for Sustainable Rural Development offers an insightful reflection on rural land fragmentation and its implications for productivity, resilience, and socio-economic well-being. By situating Tabaka Ward within broader debates on tenure systems and agricultural sustainability, the paper demonstrates how community-led consolidation efforts can catalyse inclusive rural transformation. This editorial recognises the manuscript’s relevance for national policy reforms in land management, food security, and decentralised planning. The article titled "Assessing Household Vulnerability to Climate Risks in Mukuru SPA" provides a compelling, empirically grounded examination of climate vulnerability in one of Nairobi’s largest informal settlements. The study’s strength lies in combining statistical modelling with spatial analysis and lived experiences, revealing the interconnectedness of poverty, tenure insecurity, infrastructure deficits, and climate exposure. This editorial underscores the paper’s contribution to resilience planning and its alignment with ongoing efforts to develop just, climate-adaptive informal settlement upgrading strategies. The paper Predictive Machine Learning Modelling of Urban Traffic Air Pollution showcases the growing relevance of computational modelling in addressing Africa’s escalating air-quality challenges. By integrating traffic dynamics, meteorological variables, and machine learning, the study offers predictive insights crucial for urban environmental policy. This editorial highlights its applicability to transport planning, emission regulation, and the design of healthier cities. Landscape Dependence and Place Making provides a theoretically rich and methodologically rigorous review of how people form functional attachments to landscapes. By tracing global scholarship and identifying gaps in African scholarship, the paper strengthens the conceptual foundations of place-making, landscape governance, and socio-spatial behaviour. This editorial acknowledges the importance of the review in guiding designers, planners, and researchers toward more context-sensitive approaches to public space, especially in African urbanism. The article Navigating Urban Sprawl and Green Space Loss examines one of the most urgent threats to Nairobi’s environmental sustainability. Through a case study of Kahawa West Community Park, the paper examines the socio-ecological consequences of unmanaged sprawl and the governance gaps that undermine green infrastructure. This editorial underscores how the study’s findings align with global and national sustainability agendas and offer actionable strategies for reversing urban green-space decline. In Empowering Urban Margins, the authors illuminate the ingenuity and resilience of informal settlement communities as they mobilise resources and social capital to secure land rights. This editorial recognises the study’s significance in reframing tenure security not as a top-down administrative process but as a community-driven, participatory, and socially embedded endeavour. The findings contribute innovative insights into urban inclusivity, grassroots financing models, and the future of equitable city-making in Africa. The final article, African Design Technologies for Universal Innovative Business Strategy, positions African cultural heritage as a powerful engine of global innovation. The paper persuasively argues that design philosophies rooted in African traditions can catalyse creativity, sustainability, and competitive business strategy. This editorial highlights the study’s multidimensional analysis—spanning artisanship, entrepreneurship, and consumer psychology—and its contribution to reimagining African design as a globally relevant economic asset.
VOLUME 20 ISSUE 3 (DECEMBER, 2025) CONTENT VII Editorial Prof. Robert W. Rukwaro 3448 Harnessing Climate Finance for Solid Waste Management in Nairobi: The Circular Economy, Carbon Credits and Emissions Reduction Approach James Odongo and Silvester Kasuku 3464 Multicriteria Evaluation of the Quality of Service (QoS) of Informal Public Transport (IPT): A Case Study of Ngong Road, Nairobi Metropolitan Area Martin Taani, Yukitsugu Komazawa, Simpson Nyambane Osano, Miracle Wachira and Francis Gitau 3482 Green Infrastructure for Urban Resilience: Integrating Nature-Based Solutions into Stormwater Management in Nairobi Jackline Nyamumbo and Silvester Kasuku 3500 A Machine Learning–Based Computational Framework for Road Performance Assessment in Developing Countries: Evidence from Kenya Amollo Otieno Kenneth, Simpson Nyambane Osano and Tony Ndungu 3512 Performance of Mortgage-Financed Construction Projects in Kenya: Empirical Evidence from Developers Julius Mungai Muigai, Shadrack Mutungi Simon, Gerryshom Munala and James Maina Kiambigi 3534 A Planning Framework for Flood Mitigation in Nakuru City, Kenya Evans Otieno, Mugwima B. Njuguna, Mwangi Kiambigi and John M. Gathenya 3550 Spatial-Temporal Impacts of Port Development on City Land Use: Empirical Evidence from Developers Nashon Njoroge Ngugi, Dennis Karanja and Paul Aloyo 3568 Land Use Consolidation as a Tool for Sustainable Rural Development in Kenya: A Case of Tabaka Ward, Kisii County Daniel Ondu Okumu, Dennis Karanja, Stella Mbiti and Paul Aloyo 3580 Assessing Household Vulnerability to Climate Risks in Mukuru Special Planning Area (Spa), Nairobi: A Case of Tabaka Ward, Kisii County Nyakundi Victor, Munala Gerryshom and Mugwima Njuguna
The Africa Habitat Review Journal strives to impart knowledge and facilitate exchange of ideas among stakeholders in the built environment to keep abreast of new technology, research and development so that they can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of their services. Further, it is intended to enable both academicians and non-academicians in the built environment to publish, lobby and influence policy formulation. The Journal links theory and practice in the built environment within the Kenyan, regional and International context.