The University of Nairobi Journal of Language and Linguistics
The journal carries peer-reviewed articles about any aspect of language of communication and about any language of the world. The journal is published in both print and online format.
Department of Linguistics and Languages, University of Nairobi
Pragmatic Factors Influencing Word Order in Nandi
This paper explores the pragmatic factors that influence word order in the Nandi language, in which word order plays an important role in encoding pragmatic functions such as focus, topicalization, contrast, and emphasis. Although the syntactic structure of Nandi has been previously described, little attention has been given to how word-order choices are influenced by pragmatic considerations. This study addresses this gap by investigating how word order in Nandi is influenced by pragmatic factors. The study applies Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) as a theoretical framework to examine how pragmatic factors such as focus and topic drive variations in simple clause constructions. The findings reveal that Verb Subject Object (VSO) is the dominant word order, and that the Verb Object Subject (VOS) word order and other word orders, such as Subject Object Verb (SOV), Subject Verb Object (SVO), and Object Verb Subject (OVS), are used systematically in particular pragmatic environments. The study contributes to both the descriptive understanding of Nandi syntax and the theoretical modelling of word order flexibility in VSO languages, as well as providing comparative insights for the Nilotic language family.
Copyright (c) 2026 Shadrack Kipsang, Jane Akinyi Ngala Oduor, Prisca Jerono https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Segment Reversal in Kuliak and its Relationship to Nilo-Saharan
The paper discusses a pervasive feature of the Kuliak languages, a branch of Nilo-Saharan, consisting of two living languages, Ik and So, plus the moribund Nyang’i. Many CV syllables in cognate forms in other branches of Nilo-Saharan are realized as VC in Kuliak. This feature is not so constant as to constitute a morphological rule but applies to a significant number of lexemes in comparison with other Nilo-Saharan languages. The paper begins with an introduction to the literature on Kuliak languages and their status, then provides data tables from unpublished and published sources to support the existence of this process. The author's hypothesis is that this arises at the interface between morphology and phonology, and that it arises from the convergence of two processes: affix copying of common elements (-k- and -t-) and erosion from the front.
Copyright (c) 2026 The University of Nairobi Journal of Language and Linguistics https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
This report presents new evidence for a three-way tonal contrast in Nuer (Western Nilotic), distinguishing proximal, distal, and proper nouns. Many common nouns display two tonal forms: one used when the referent is proximal to the speaker and another when it is distal. The tonal pattern of the distal form suggests the presence of a floating H tone at its right edge. In addition, oblique forms of proper nouns derived from common nouns exhibit a distinct tonal pattern. It is proposed here that the tonal differences arise from a morpheme consisting of a floating mora preceding proper names in the oblique form.
Copyright (c) 2026 The University of Nairobi Journal of Language and Linguistics
This paper presents a preliminary analysis of clause combining in Gwama, a Koman language spoken in Western Ethiopia. Clauses are combined to form a complex unit. Four types of clause combination structures are identified in the language: complement clauses, relative clauses, adverbial clauses, and converbal clauses. When finite complements function as objects, the verbs of the complements are usually morphologically marked in that they take subject markers and aspect morphemes. In complement constructions, two independent clauses are juxtaposed in Gwama. According to the typology of relative clause formation in African languages, all the relative clause constructions in Gwama use a head-internal non-reduction relativization strategy, where the head noun appears as a full-fledged noun phrase in the relative clause and has no explicit representation in the matrix clause. The relative clauses of Gwama are basically postnominal. Temporal, reason, and concessive clauses have their own markers. The Gwama converb constructions meet two of the three requirements that are attested cross-linguistically: syntactically, converbs are subordinate; on the semantic level, converbs generally modify verbs in a clause; and morphologically, converbs have no markers, so root or stem forms of verbs function as non-finite forms. In such clausal constructions in the language, a series of events are conjoined, with the event expressed by the converb appearing anterior to the event expressed by the finite verb.
Arguments for the Coherence of Nilo-Saharan
The Nilo-Saharan phylum of African languages was identified by Greenberg in 1963. Although widely accepted, recent decades have seen researchers both inside and outside the field of Nilo-Saharan studies reject its coherence in whole or in part. This paper argues that it is a coherent phylum with at least twelve recognised branches and that phonological, morphological, and lexical evidence exists to support this claim. Three topics are examined in detail: three-term number marking, ATR vowel harmony, and the use of t- and k- affixing. The paper argues that these cannot be explained away as typological features, since they incorporate distinctive phonology and segmental morphology. In addition, the evidence from two personal pronouns is tabulated, each of which appears to have two reconstructible forms. The paper concludes with a new model of the internal configuration of Nilo-Saharan.
Copyright (c) 2026 The University of Nairobi Journal of Language and Linguistics https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Strategies of Semantic Change in Loan Words in the Nilotic Languages
This descriptive and analytical study aims to examine the various strategies of semantic changes that take place in words borrowed into Dinka, Nuer, and Bari, members of the Western Nilotic group of the Nilo-Saharan languages (Greenberg 1970) spoken by a majority of the South Sudanese population. Data was collected from native speakers for both Dinka and Nuer, and from Awad’s (2015) study for Bari. The loan words were then subjected to linguistic analysis to investigate the linguistic mechanisms of their adaptation into the semantic systems of these languages. It is shown that meaning change may result from different processes or strategies, such as generalization, specialization, or radical change in a word's meaning, while changes can also occur in the emotive content of words.
Introduction: Special Issue on the 16th Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium
The papers in this collection result from talks that were presented at the 16th NiloSaharan Colloquium, Nairobi, which was organized by a team of colleagues from the Institute of African Studies and Egyptology, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Cologne and the Department of Linguistics and Languages, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Nairobi from 29th to 31st August 2023.1 The conference was entitled “Linguistic, Sociocultural, and Indigenous Perspectives” and, as the title indicates, it offered a comprehensive and expansive view on the diversity of Nilo-Saharan studies, encompassing panels on phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, as well as sociolinguistics and historical reconstruction. The panels, which promoted an indigenous perspective, treated issues such as the pragmatics of war and conflict and cattle color terms, as well as literature and heritage studies, where researchers from fields beyond language sciences and linguistics presented on topics as diverse as archeology, forgotten manuscripts, Bible translation, art, film, and architecture, encouraging lively discussions. The conference also included a special round table on “Heritage and/as language” with participants of the Nairobi-Aswan-Cologne Summer School, chaired by Heinz Felber and Anne Storch.
The Natural Semantic Meta-language of War and Conflict Resolution in Kalenjin
This paper addresses the issue of war and conflict resolution in Kalenjin and is motivated by the quest to understand the cultural perspectives surrounding war and the resolution of conflicts as evidenced by the Kalenjin language. This is done against the backdrop of the Natural Semantic Metalanguage, which aims to provide a culture-free understanding of cultural norms through the use of a universal metalanguage. Data for this study were sourced from interviews, narratives and other secondary sources such as books. From the data and interviews, we unravel the cultural terms, phrases, practises and metaphors that relate to war and conflict resolution in some Kalenjin communities. From the study, it is observed that the Kalenjin notions of war are expressed as pɔ̀:rjɛ́:t ‘warfare’ and lùɣɛ́:t ‘raids’, where the former is undertaken for protection and reprisals against the enemy, while the latter is undertaken and sanctioned spiritually for community growth and expansion. In this, the cultural script of mùrɛ́n ‘warrior’ is very important, and all males have to be prepared for this role through circumcision. In war, various weapons were used, and elders participated in blessing or sanctioning raids. Conflict resolution, meanwhile, was overseen by kì:rùɔ̀ɣík ‘adjudicators’ and it only involved rival community members and not outsiders. This was undertaken under special trees known as kà:bù:rw ɔ́ ‘place of shade’; in this resolution, elderly women could also participate through the use of nɔ̀:ɣìrwɛ́:t ‘staff’, which symbolized their authority. Most wars among the Kalenjin were undertaken through lùɣɛ́:t ‘raids’ where the community raided other communities to acquire livestock and for territorial expansion.
The Conceptualization of War in a Dholuo Gospel Song
The paper investigates the discourse processing mechanisms behind the mental representations created by recipients of the gospel song Yesu Tiyo Taling’aling’a ‘Jesus is working, and I am just silent’, by Milka Omondi. The paper uses the analytical tools provided by Text World Theory (TWT), a cognitive linguistics framework for discourse processing (Werth 1999, Gavins 2007), to analyse how world-building and function-advancing elements contribute to the interpretation of the gospel song. This song was chosen for analysis in this paper because of its popularity at social, religious, and political functions in the Luo nation in Kenya. On most occasions, it presents a split discourse world because the singer herself and the recipients/ audience do not share the same physical space. The paper demonstrates how deictic and referential information and function-advancing propositions in the song combine with the listeners’ linguistic, cultural, and general knowledge to facilitate the metaphoric conceptualization of war as work. It also shows that among the five entities/referents named in the song, Yesu ‘Jesus’ is the protagonist of the ongoing war and conflict. The overall aim of the song/text is religious persuasion, as the first-person narrator enacts the recipient and persuades the recipient to accept the ideology that there is a war and that she/he should be silent and let Jesus do the work. This paper contributes to the cognitive linguistic analysis of data from an indigenous language in Kenya. It shows how grammatical structures relate to cognition and cultural expressions in a Dholuo song.
The Conjoint/Disjoint Alternation in Bari and its Origins
This study describes the hitherto unknown morpho-syntactic alternation in Bari (Eastern Nilotic) that resembles what is called a “conjoint/disjoint” alternation in Bantu linguistics, and investigates its development. In Bari, this alternation has a peculiar attestation in dynamic transitive imperfective clauses, where the “conjoint” form is homophonous with the “focus” form of the verb, while the “disjoint” form is homophonous with the “potential” form. By analyzing various readings of these verb forms, as well as the other conjoint/disjoint-like alternations in various clause types (causative complement, relative, and sequential), we argue that the development of these alternations in Bari started with the functional expansion of the TAM-neutral “focus” form.
This paper gives a description of the tonal marking on verbal forms in the Wagi dialect of Beria. Beria is a Saharan language of the Nilo-Saharan phylum spoken in northwestern Darfur in Sudan and in northeastern Chad. Previous studies have reported the significant role played by tone in Beria. However, an in-depth analysis of tone is still pending. In this paper, we concentrate on verb forms and provide an up-to-date analysis of their tonal marking. The research is based on an extensive data collection of (non-)finite forms of more than 220 verbs. The verbal system of Beria is characterized by the existence of different lexical tone classes and grammatical tones. Grammatical tones distinguish categories such as number, TAM, and polarity. We describe lexical and grammatical tones and their interaction. The main objective of the paper is to present an analysis of the processes of tonal changes that derive surface realizations of finite verb forms. In this study, we provide evidence for three underlying level tones (L, M, and H) which typically form tonal contours on the surface. The three tones are not equally distributed. While L and M occur in all positions, the H tone is restricted, and we analyze it as having only a grammatical function. Moreover, L-tone-only forms are not attested on the surface, which, as we argue, is due to the Obligatory Contour Principle.
The Ethno-Pragmatics of Naming Children in the Mafa Culture in Cameroon
This paper discusses the major themes and implied meanings behind the names given to children in the culture of the Mafa, a community that lives in the Far-North Region of Cameroon. While naming their children, the Mafa people create a way to speak to the world. Naming is not a haphazard process, nor is it done for the pleasure of having this or that name. Giving a name to a child is a fervent commitment to bringing about a certain change in the way the world is. The present study aims to show that naming or bearing a name in the Mafa culture is performing an act. It is a form of oral literature revolving around themes such as death, suffering or illness, jealousy, joy, consolation, pride, and prayers addressed to God on specific issues. The data for the present study were collected through document analysis (exploitation of an existing checklist of names), observations, and interviews.
Copyright (c) 2025 The University of Nairobi Journal of Language and Linguistics
The Ex-situ focus construction in Gĩkũyũ
Gĩkũyũ has in-situ and ex-situ focus marking strategies. In the in-situ strategy, focus is marked on a constituent in its default syntactic position. In the ex-situ focus strategy, a constituent occurs at the front of a clause and gets attached to the morphemes nĩ- (‘is’) or ti- (‘is not’). This makes the morpheme nĩ- obligatory in an ex-situ focus construction; however, there is no consensus on its role. Whereas Clements (1984) and Schwarz (2007) see it as a focus marker, Bergvall (1987) sees it as an assertion marker. Consequently, the structure of the ex-situ clause has also been a subject of debate. In the literature, two main theoretical approaches compete in trying to explain it. The Focus Phrase Approach (Clements 1984) treats it as a mono-clausal construction, whereas the Cleft Analysis (Bergvall 1987) treats it as a bi-clausal one. The literature also fails to explain the motivation behind the ex-situ focus construction, particularly in cases where in-situ focus marking is also possible. For these reasons, the structure and the motivations behind ex-situ focus in Gĩkũyũ remain an open topic; hence, the interest of this paper. Using the Prominence Theory of Focus Realization (Büring 2010) to analyze data from sermons presented in the Gĩkũyũ language, this study concludes that the ex-situ focus construction in Gĩkũyũ is biclausal. Further, it demonstrates that the morphemes nĩ- and ti-, as used in the ex-situ focus constructions, are copula verbs which facilitate focus marking by allowing a focus-sensitive position after them. The study further establishes that the search for maximal prominence motivates the preference for the ex-situ focus construction in Gĩkũyũ. It also demonstrates that the “Prominence Constraint,” in the Prominence Theory of Focus Realization, requires parameterisation for it to more adequately account for the ex-situ focus construction in Gĩkũyũ.
KINDLY as a polite request mitigator and more in Kenyan English usage
The adverb kindly is little used as a polite request mitigator (Kindly close the door) in World Standard English (WSE). But it is a frequent occurrence in Kenyan English (KenE), where, unlike in WSE, it is not limited to a pre-verbal position: it can occur even without an accompanying verb whose illocutionary force it is supposed to mitigate, as in Kindly, I’m appealing to you and I’m appealing to you, kindly. Still unlike in WSE, kindly freely co-occurs with please (the other request mitigator), as in Kindly please listen to me or Please kindly listen to me. Also, kindly frequently premodifies the verb request, as in I’m kindly requesting you to listen to me. These various positions and pragmatic configurations in which kindly occurs in KenE are evidence of its syntactic and pragmatic versatility, as illustrated by the 105 SMS, WhatsApp and email messages used as data in this article.
Copyright (c) 2025 Authors of the individual articles.
A JOURNEY THROUGH CREATIVITY AND UNORTHODOX LITERARY CRITICISM: LESSONS FROM THE MASSES OFFERING CRITICISM IN A VERNACULAR LANGUAGE IN KENYA
I cannot boast of being a literary critic of any shade – neither am I well tutored in the literary world – but I read and enjoy literature and have incorporated others into my reading world. I, therefore, feel greatly humbled standing in front of this grand gathering of academic and language greats to express my brief and non-academic wandering into the world of literature. Being a linguist, what I present here today is not an academic treatise on literary criticism and creativity but thoughts, recollections and experiences I have had in my dalliance with literature. Allow me to digress. In March 2000, the first 24-hour wholly vernacular station in Kenya opened its doors. It was, and still is, known as Kameme FM. Being a lover and an ardent advocate of the use of vernacular languages, I frequently tuned into the station and was elated. I promptly wrote an application (in Gikuyu) requesting to be given time to air an academic programme which I christened “Book Review” in the application. The objective of the programme would be to “read” and “review” literature books in Gikuyu. Since there were not many books written in that language, I proposed to “read and translate books written in English and Kiswahili into Gikuyu” in keeping with the station’s goal of broadcasting in Gikuyu. I had in mind a programme along the lines of “Books and Bookmen”, which I had tuned in to for quite some years. At that time, the programme was presented by now Professor Egara Kabaji of Masinde Muliro University and, among its pioneer participants, Professor Chris Wanjala of the Department of Literature at the University of Nairobi. But I did not have the intention of having a replica of Kabaji’s programme. I had thought of ways of making the programme interactive and I was lucky, given the current advancements in communication technology. I did not want to lecture as Kabaji did. My intention was to go through the book as written and then give listeners a chance to call in and give a critique, however uneducated the response would be. I intended to start with a review of school set books on offer then. When the then station’s owner – Ms Rose Kimotho – heard about my idea, she liked it. The station was in the process of looking for new and fresh programmes and talents and she thought my proposal sounded unique and fresh. But there was skepticism all over: how could one possibly review English books in Gikuyu? All the same, some had some sort of faith in “this young university lecturer … maybe he has a way of doing it.”
Copyright (c) 2023 University of Nairobi Journal of Linguistics and Languages
This paper explains the many uses of ‘kanga’ or ‘leso’ as a medium for passing on messages of various types in the day to day life of a Swahili person. The paper explains the shape of the kanga, the various uses and the different expressions (‘names’) which are either poetic idiomatic expressions or prose type. Most of the expressions touch on the themes of religion, weddings, general words of wisdom, caution and admonition, congratulatory messages, parents and their immeasurable love and care, among others. Makala haya yanaeleza umuhimu wa vazi la kanga au leso kama njia ya kupitisha jumbe za ainaaina katika maisha ya Mswahili.Tumeeleza umbo la kanga, matumizi yake anuwai na maneno (‘majina’) yake tofautitofauti ambayo huwa aidha ya kishairi au kinathari. Maneno na kauli hizo hurejelea jumbe za kidini, harusi, maneno ya kawaida ya hekima, tahadhari na kuonya, kupongeza, wazazi na mapenzi yao yasopimika na moyo wao wa kujali, kati ya maudhui mengine.
THE TREATMENT OF KISWAHILI IN KENYA’S EDUCATION SYSTEM
This paper intends to evaluate the treatment of Kiswahili in the education system in Kenya. The need for this evaluation arises from the fact that although English and Kiswahili are co-official languages under the Official Law Reports of the Republic of Kenya (2010)1, English seems to remain prominent in the conduct of official communication in Kenya‟s public and private formal discourse. The paper examines language policy documents containing information on the place of Kiswahili in official communication within the Republic of Kenya. Some of these documents show the status of Kiswahili before and immediately (approximately 20 years) after independence while others are more recent documents. The paper then assesses the implementation of the policy documents as far as Kiswahili is concerned, noting that the treatment of Kiswahili has not been a fair one especially when contrasted with that of English. Possible reasons for the unfair treatment are suggested, noting that although the treatment (of Kiswahili) has not been very fair, Kiswahili has still developed, its use has increased and there are significant achievements that can be identified. Other ways of elevating Kiswahili are suggested and discussed. The paper concludes by observing that all Kenyans need to participate in the promotion of Kiswahili if it is to continue growing as it should as one of Kenya‟s two official languages, Kenya‟s only national language, and a mother tongue to many Kenyans.
THE ROLE OF INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES IN UNDERSTANDING KISWAHILI PROVERBS
This paper endeavours to show how Kiswahili students can be able to conceptualize and understand the uses and meanings of proverbs by drawing on the similarities of the meanings and uses of the proverbs found in their indigenous languages. An indigenous language carries a person‟s identity and world view. The world view is formed by the norms, culture and beliefs associated with the language. In Kenya the official languages are English and Kiswahili, with Kiswahili carrying a second function of a national language. Together with English, Kiswahili is a compulsory examinable subject in primary and secondary schools in spite of its being an indigenous language only to a small percentage of the population. Most of the students learn it as a second or third language. Part of the Kiswahili syllabus entails learning aspects associated with Kiswahili culture. One of these entails the uses and meanings of proverbs. Students learning Kiswahili as a second language often have difficulties understanding the uses and meanings of the various proverbs because they are associated with a culture and an environment different from theirs. Using examples showing the similarities found in the uses of proverbs and their meanings, the paper demonstrates how speakers of Tugen (one of the languages within the Kalenjin macro language) learning Kiswahili can benefit from some awareness of such similarities between Kiswahili and Tugen proverbs. By so doing it attempts to show why teachers should encourage students to draw on their indigenous languages to facilitate their conceptualization and understanding of words of wisdom that are presented in Kiswahili proverbs.
LANGUAGE ENDANGERMENT: ILLUSTRATIONS FROM MARSABIT COUNTY, KENYA
This paper interrogates the two opposing positions regarding the implications of language loss to the survival of the relevant culture. While one position (cf. Miyaoka 2001:8; Thomason 2001:10) holds that language and culture require each other for their continued survival, the other position (cf. Duenhauer and Duenhauer 1998:76; Rigsby 1987:370) contends that the relationship between them is such that, in spite of their closeness, the loss of one does not necessarily lead to the loss of the other. The discussion is based on the linguistic situation in Marsabit County. The county is linguistically heterogeneous with over ten indigenous ethnic communities who claim to be natives, and not (recent) immigrants. The languages spoken by these inhabitants of the county are drawn from two major language phyla: Afro-asiatic and Nilo-Saharan. A good number of these languages, however, are grappling with the threat of assimilation following contact with other (indigenous) languages whose speakers, apparently, exhibit some dominance (political, economical and statistical) over the rest. In particular, the paper examines the threat posed to Elmolo and Rendille by Samburu, and to Burji, Waata and Konso by Borana. Using illustrations drawn from these cases of language shift, the paper demonstrates that the decline of linguistic diversity in Marsabit County has a potentially impoverishing effect on the culture and by extension on the human development of the county.
TRACING SOME SUPPORT MECHANISMS IN MUSIC FOR THE MOTHER TONGUE EXPERIENCE
This paper examines the use of music as a support system in mother tongue acquisition among children. By so doing, the paper traces some of the ways in which language and music interact in order to support competence development in the former. The question here regards the depth of involvement of musical activities in the language process. This research focuses on some Luo songs and games for children. Through observation and investigation of primary and secondary sources, a number of musical activities and songs have been investigated to establish the depth of this influence upon language learning, including: role plays, lullabies, children‟s games, and programmed and creative dances. Music has been integrated in education programmes as a learning resource for early language learning and teaching. The main reason for this is that music provides the learner with an experiential opportunity to develop competence in the field of learning with induced pleasure that sustains the drive to learn. As the organization of the sound stimuli, the interplay between rhythm and pitch, music results in a meaningful object (work of art) whose purpose goes beyond just the production of sound. As a multi-media activity, it involves the use of several senses: sight, touch, hearing and speech. During musical activities, elements of language such as vocabulary, sentence structure and meaning are integrated into the activities. This way, the children learn with less stress and more pleasure. The results of this research are intended to agitate towards more concern in policy making for the use of music in the language curriculum for the learners enrolled in the early childhood programmes.
EXAMINING THE INDIGENIOUS WISDOM IN EKEGUSII PROVERBS
This paper examines the cultural values and wisdom that are transmitted through Ekegusii proverbs. It demonstrates how proverbs are used to comment on a variety of human experiences and to maintain societal order. Some of the cultural issues that the paper examines include gender construction, paradoxical experiences, as well as the perception of death. The paper further shows that even in instances where the proverbs appear contradictory, there are sociological reasons to explain and unravel the apparent incongruity. In addition, the paper reveals the existence of synonymous proverbs which are a result of cultural contact, arising mainly from the translation (into Ekegusii) of English and Kiswahili expressions.
ORTHOGRAPHIES IN A RAPIDLY CHANGING WORLD: NEGOTIATED COMPROMISES BETWEEN SEVERAL PARTIES
The point of this paper is that orthography development for unwritten African languages in the 21st century requires input from two major fields of study: linguistics and the aspect of learning psychology related to literacy. The second assumption this paper is built on is that orthography development is not straightforward; it always involves compromises. In the past, writing systems had a chance to develop over centuries, as people tried to communicate in writing, and finding writing rules, which worked for them and their limited readership. Some African writing systems were initiated over twenty centuries ago. Egyptian hieroglyphs are even older than that, approximately dating from between 3000 BC and 400 AD (http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Egyp). Other ancient examples are Ethiopic, Tifinagh, and Vai. Most were unique inventions (http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=entry_detail&uid=dvm6v7yblj). In the 21st century, however, the world of literacy has changed dramatically from the time of clay tablets and styluses. A select few readers were taught to read then. This is the age of EFA (UNESCO’S Education for All, 2000-2015) literacy goals for the masses. Book publishing is proliferating for minority language groups, even on laptops and cellphones. (http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/mobile/mobilephones-promote-literacy-poorest-countries-un-report-n88151). This means that the world’s unwritten or unstandardized writing systems will require focused and time-sensitive attention from two disciplines: linguistics and the aspects of learning psychology that are related to literacy. Standardization takes time: orthographies develop in stages as literature is developed and used (Karan, 2014). So how can the process be expedited, while the potential readership, speakers of the unwritten language, have yet to possess advanced reading skills? We no longer have time to develop orthographies over centuries. This paper describes the roles of linguists, educators and the major stakeholders, as well as the orthography users. It also describes the elements of language which compete for representation in African writing systems. Section 2 defines orthography outcomes while section 3 describes the process of orthography development; section 4 sheds light on the work of the linguist and the literacy consultant; section 5 discusses the tension between linguistic analysis and readability, and the paper is concluded in section 6.
THE ACQUISITION OF KENYAN SIGN LANGUAGE (KSL) AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE AS A MOTHER TONGUE AND MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF IN KENYA
This paper outlines the importance of KSL in the teaching of deaf learners in Kenya by examining the acquisition and use of KSL in the family, school and the Kenyan society at large. It, therefore, argues for early intervention policies that would enable deaf children to acquire KSL early and calls for the immediate adoption of a bilingual approach to deaf education, thus creating a conducive environment for the use of KSL across the curriculum. Convinced that “to reject a child‟s language in the school or anywhere [else] is to reject the child”, (Cummins 2001) the paper argues that any meaningful education for the deaf in Kenya must take cognizance of the importance of their native tongue or mother tongue – i.e. Kenyan Sign Language (KSL). In spite of its recognition by the Constitution of Kenya 2010, it does not seem to have been embraced as the language of learning in schools for the deaf in Kenya. The proposal made in this paper is that KSL should become a medium of instruction in schools for the deaf and, as such, be used to teach language and other academic subjects, KSL itself as a subject, as well as KSL-teaching methodology courses for trainee teachers of the deaf. The paper demonstrates that the continued reluctance to use KSL as the mother tongue of the deaf in their education is largely to blame for the poor state of deaf education in Kenya, which has not given deaf Kenyans the opportunity to compete on an equal footing with their hearing counterparts in the country – making it a human rights issue. For deaf Kenyans to have equal access to the services offered by the larger society, their language – KSL, which is their mother tongue (L1), must occupy its deserved place in their lives, starting with their education. The adoption of the late-exit or developmental bilingual education approach is one way of doing this. To advance this view, the paper benefits from the social model of perception on disability and the humanrights-based approach.
EXPANDING THE SOCIOLINGUISTIC SPACE FOR THE EMERGENCE OF HYBRID MOTHER TONGUES IN AFRICA: THE CASE OF KENYA
This paper examines the key factors to consider when selecting the language(s) that would be most appropriate as media of instruction in schools within a multicultural and multilingual setting - in this case Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya. The emergence and growth of urban codes in African urban spaces is a sociolinguistically significant phenomenon because it represents some recognition of these urban codes and places them into a „hybrid third space‟ where mixed languages and mixed identities are accommodated. Moreover, urban youth from different ethnic backgrounds can challenge the traditional linguistic and cultural identities of earlier generations that tend to categorize communities into rigid ethnic identities and cultural frameworks. The growth and spread of urban codes in urban settings even as mother tongue languages is a dynamic process that continues to grow despite deliberate efforts by educationists, language policy makers and other „language gatekeepers‟ to demonize and discourage their use, supposedly because they are to blame for the poor performance of students during national examinations, particularly those that test competence and performance in English and Kiswahili – Kenya‟s official languages (the latter having the added accolade of being the national language). The argument in this paper is that this blanket condemnation and prohibition of urban children and youth to use familiar urban codes as their preferred forms of communication, which serves as a mother tongue for some, violates the linguistic and cultural rights of children, particularly in Nairobi.
MOTHER TONGUES AS MEDIA OF INSTRUCTION: THE CASE OF KENYA
This paper advances the argument that using mother tongues as media of instruction in the lower levels of formal learning in Kenya is the best option there is for the children‟s education. The use of mother tongues as the media of instruction has been a vexing issue in Kenya. Besides the indigenous languages or mother tongues, the country also has English, which was inherited from the colonial past. This ex-colonial language (English) is associated with the professions, white-collar jobs, upward mobility, power and material prosperity. On the other hand, mother tongues are seen to signify pre-modernity and lack of sophistication. Kiswahili, a mother tongue for some Kenyans and also Kenya‟s national and official language (alongside English), is placed in-between English and the other mother tongues in a three-tier language prestige hierarchy. Since English has the highest prestige among the languages spoken in the country, many parents want their children to learn the language well. Consequently, a policy providing for the use of mother tongues as media of instruction in the lower levels of formal learning has attracted reactions ranging from scepticism, at best, to hostility, at the very worst, not only from parents but also from other members of society who consider them as being of little value. There is no doubt that there are challenges standing on the way of the efforts to implement such a policy but it is still reasonable to submit that the challenges are surmountable.
THE STATUS OF MOTHER TONGUES IN KENYA AND CHINA: LESSONS THE TWO COUNTRIES CAN LEARN FROM EACH OTHER
This paper is a comparative analysis of the language situations in China and Kenya, intended to identify the important lessons about language management in a multi-ethnic society that the two countries can learn from each other. China has over 130 languages, with Mandarin Chinese (Hanyu) being a mother tongue to over 90% of the Chinese population. The situation is different in Kenya, which has over 40 languages, most of which are minority languages. Significant differences are noted in the areas of language reforms and policy, language development agencies, and the treatment of ethnic minority languages. In each of the two countries, the constitution spells out some of the language concerns and the relevant guidelines for their usage and management. In Kenya, additional legal texts about the language policy are currently in preparation. The greatest lesson that Kenya can learn from China is the need to insist on catering for issues to do with language at the national government level, resisting any pressure from the county governments regarding variations on the relevant constitutional provisions (Republic of Kenya, 2010). The drafters of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 got this right by giving the national government the function of managing “Language policy and the promotion of official and local languages” (Fourth Schedule, Part 1 (5)). The national government must learn from China to treat this as a serious national responsibility by formulating the relevant policy guidelines and enacting the necessary supportive laws. For China, the greatest lesson to learn is the need to also include NGOs and individual efforts in the development of languages.
APPROACHING MOTHER-TONGUE EDUCATION AS A PERSONAL AND SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
This paper underscores the need for a broadly defined market orientation in our advocacy for mother-tongue learning, as well as in the research that seeks to establish the value of mother-tongue competence in Africa. The paper calls attention to the fact that the world of today is driven by market ethics, in which people‟s choices are guided by the persistent quest for what to sell in the market of opportunities, both in the social and material domains of life. Our young people must be shown how speaking a mother-tongue opens up opportunities for self-advancement in their struggles to make life meaningful. This general argument is hinged on literature from both linguistic and nonlinguistic scholarship, and illustrated with Kenya‟s sociolinguistic realities and the corresponding constitutional and policy provisions.
HARMONIZING THE ORTHOGRAPHIES OF BANTU LANGUAGES
Despite the multiplicity of African languages, available literature on the development of these languages points to the need to have their orthographies harmonized and standardized. This is because properly designed orthographies can play a monumental role in promoting their use in all spheres of life, and hence contribute to Africa’s socioeconomic development. Such harmonization is practical, especially among languages such as Gĩkŭyŭ and Ekegusii, two distinct Kenyan Bantu languages that are mutually intelligible. This paper examines how similar or dissimilar their phonologies and orthographies are, with a view to proposing how they can be harmonized. The paper concludes that there are benefits that can accrue from such harmonization efforts, especially because there will be greater availability of literacy materials accessible to the speakers of the two languages.
SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT IN THE SPEECH OF MESHACK, AN EKEGUSII SPEAKER
Research on SLI, mostly on European languages like English, German and Italian, has suggested that it mainly affects inflectional morphology and, to a lesser degree, syntax and phonology. The present study researched SLI in Ekegusii, an African language which, unlike those three, is a tone language. The study found that the impairment in the case studied significantly affected not only inflectional (essentially verbal) morphology, but also phonology, especially tones. It found much fewer instances of lexical and syntactic impairment.
ONSANSE’S LANGUAGE: NOT MORE THAN TWO-WORD UTTERANCES AFTER FORTY YEARS OF EXPOSURE TO FOUR LANGUAGES
This paper set out to investigate the amount and nature of language the subject of the study (Onsanse) has learnt for four decades of exposure to several languages after being picked up at the age of 17, when he could produce only one word and one interjection in Ekegusii. The data from conversations and observations audio- and video-recorded for 154 hours show that Onsanse has picked up an amount of vocabulary that enables him to interact with people especially in Dholuo and Kiswahili. However, he has not acquired a grammar that would enable him to produce an utterance longer than two words. In another respect Onsanse’s grammar is comparable to that of Specific Language Impairment subjects, since its morphological component is selectively impaired: for instance, in Dholuo, the language he seems to be most “competent” in, Onsanse has greater difficulty in using the singular subject marker prefix than its plural counterpart. At the phonological level, his speech was marked by omissions and substitutions of phonemes, but no typical features stood out as typical of his speech.